1. Chapter 10
Thinking

2. Thinking about Thinking
“Cogito ergo sum”
(I think, therefore I am)
-Rene Descartes
“Many people would sooner die
than think. In fact they do.”
-Bertrand Russell

3. Cognition
Cognition - Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive psychologists study these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation

4. Concepts
Concepts - Mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics
How we learn concepts
Artificial concepts/definitions are formed by logical, specific rules.
b. Natural concepts/prototypes have characteristic rather than defining features.
c. Hierarchies help us group concepts into subcategories within broader categories.

5. Artificial Concepts (definitions)
-Require specific rules
Usually abstract ideas
Usually explicitly learned
What are the rules that determine if something is a “square” or not?

6. Natural Concepts (prototypes)
-Uses characteristics instead of rules
Observational
Usually implicitly learned
Prototype – A mental image or best example that incorporates all of the features associated with a category

7. Hierarchies
Hierarchies help us organize concepts into groups and subdivide big concepts into more specific ones

8. Problem Solving Trial and Error
A problem-solving strategy in which several solutions are attempted until one is found that works
Algorithm
A problem-solving procedure that is guaranteed to produce a solution
Heuristic
A mental shortcut that allows one to make judgments that are quick but often in error

9. Algorithms Step by step process Assesses every possible solution
Guaranteed to produce a correct answer
Used by computer programs

10. Heuristics ENQEU Simple problem solving strategies
What word is this?
How do you know?
Simple problem solving strategies
Faster than algorithms
Often faulty
Examples:
-Working backward
-Searching for analogies
-Breaking a big problem into smaller problems

11. Insight When an answer comes to you instantly
Not a conscious problem solving strategy
An “A-ha!” or “Eureka!” moment
Archimedes trying to determine something is gold. Gave up to take a bath and saw water spill out and yelled Eureka and ran naked in the streets because he discovered displacement.

12. Now, try this example…

13. In what year did George Washington sign the Declaration of Independence?

14. Overconfidence
A tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our judgments

15. Fixation The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
What is a four-letter sport that starts with a T?
Family Guy:
Answer: Golf

16. Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think only of the familiar use for an object without considering alternative uses.
Bruce Lee on Functional Fixedness:

17. Consider this question:
Linda is 31, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in Philosophy and Women’s Studies in college. As a students, she was deeply concerned with discrimination and other social issues, and she participated in protests.
Which statement is more likely?
A – Linda is a bank teller
B – Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement
B seems more likely because of the description, but A is more likely because it is less specific.

18. Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype.
Don’t judge a book by its cover!

19. Which causes more deaths?
All accidents or Strokes?
Asthma or Electrocution? Homicide or Diabetes?
Motor Vehicle Accidents or Cancer of the digestive system?
Appendicitis or Lightning?
Drowning or Leukemia?

20. Which causes more deaths?
55,000 - All accidents or Strokes? – 102,000
920 - Asthma or Electrocution? – 500 9,200 - Homicide or Diabetes? 19,000
27,000 - Motor Vehicle Accidents or Cancer of the digestive system? 46,400
440 - Appendicitis or Lightning? - 52
3,600 - Drowning or Leukemia? – 7,100
*figures per million deaths

21. Availability Heuristic
Information is often perceived as correct if it is easily retrieved.
Bears are higher on the food chain, therefore they are more dangerous to people than deer, which is a prey animal.
False! Deer cause more deaths is the US than bears.

22. Would you use it? Would you have your younger siblings use it?
A new disease is sweeping the world. 10 out of every 1000 children die from this disease. There is a vaccine that effectively stops the disease, but the vaccine is also a risk because it has been shown to cause a reaction that kills 5 out of every 1000 children that use it.
Would you use it? Would you have your younger siblings use it?
Both carry a risk, but the disease kills 1% while the vaccine kills .5%.

23. What if the question were asked this way:
A new deadly disease is sweeping the world. An imperfect vaccine exists that doubles one’s chance of survival if they take it.
Would you use it? Would you have your younger siblings use it?
This puts taking the vaccine in a far more positive light.

24. Framing
The way a problem is presented can cause people to respond to it in irrational ways.
Should the government be allowed to use force and the threat of police to take your money? Should the government be allowed to create taxes? It’s the same question!

25. Is this logical? Some of the beekeepers are artists.
None of the chemists are beekeepers.
Therefore, some of the artists are not Chemists.

26. Is this logical? Some birds can swim No fish are birds
Therefore, some animals that can swim are not fish.

27. Why is one harder to understand than the other?
Some of the beekeepers are artists.
None of the chemists are beekeepers.
Therefore, some of the artists are not chemists.
Some birds can swim
No fish are birds
Therefore, some animals that can swim are not fish.
-Some A are B
-None of C are A
-Therefore, some of B are not C

28. Belief Bias The tendency for our beliefs to distort our logic
Clinging to that bias and refusing to accept evidence that refutes your beliefs is called Belief Perseverance.
Readiness to accept any evidence that supports your beliefs is called Confirmation Bias.