Introduction to Forward-Pointing Devices

Grammatical choices as authorial intent Choice implies meaning Choice implies meaning Default versus Marked Default versus Marked Semantic meaning vs. Pragmatic effect Semantic meaning vs. Pragmatic effect Principles, not rules Principles, not rules

Forward-Pointing Devices Exploit at least one of three factors: Exploit at least one of three factors: Redundancy Redundancy Marked usage Marked usage Delay/Interruption Delay/Interruption

Processing Hierarchy Discourse-pragmatic Function which entails Processing Function which entails Semantic Function

Forward-Pointing Devices Unneeded/Redundant Unneeded/Redundant “Guess what?” “Get this…”—Just say it! “Guess what?” “Get this…”—Just say it! “Although I like your shirt…”—Get to the point! “Although I like your shirt…”—Get to the point! “Don’t just sit there…”—What should I do? “Don’t just sit there…”—What should I do? “I want you to know…”—Just say it! “I want you to know…”—Just say it! “I decided to go upstairs. As I am walking up the stairs…”—Get to the point, and use past tense! “I decided to go upstairs. As I am walking up the stairs…”—Get to the point, and use past tense!

Forward-Pointing Devices “Guess what?” “Get this…” “Guess what?” “Get this…” Redundancy-extra pronoun Redundancy-extra pronoun Markedness-pronouns typically backward-pointing Markedness-pronouns typically backward-pointing Delay/interruption-extra reference slows the discourse Delay/interruption-extra reference slows the discourse “I want you to know…” “I want you to know…” Redundancy-extra clause, already known Redundancy-extra clause, already known Delay/interruption-extra reference slows the discourse, pushing off what he wants you to know. Delay/interruption-extra reference slows the discourse, pushing off what he wants you to know.

Forward-Pointing C Reference C and D Target D Redundant reference to something yet to be introduced. Redundant reference to something yet to be introduced. Non-default use of pronoun Non-default use of pronoun Extra reference delays introduction Extra reference delays introduction

Forward-Pointing C Reference C and D Target D Get this! Get this! Listen to this! Listen to this! Guess what! Guess what! You know what? You know what? Here’s the deal! Here’s the deal! This is my final offer… This is my final offer… Here’s how I want you to do this. Here’s how I want you to do this.

Forward-Pointing C Reference C and D Target D Interrogatives (rhetorical questions) Interrogatives (rhetorical questions) Asking a question that does not expect an answer Asking a question that does not expect an answer Focuses attention on the answer to the question Focuses attention on the answer to the question Matthew 11:7-9 Matthew 11:7-9 Matthew 11:7-9 Matthew 11:7-9 Romans 3:27 Romans 3:27 Romans 3:27 Romans 3:27

Forward-Pointing C Reference C and D Target D Demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Generic reference to something not yet introduced Generic reference to something not yet introduced Individual entity (i.e. person or thing) Individual entity (i.e. person or thing) Propositional concept (i.e. idea or quotation) Propositional concept (i.e. idea or quotation) 1 John 4: John 4: John 4: John 4:9-10 Matthew 2:5, 18, 23 Matthew 2:5, 18, 23 Matthew 2:5, 18, 23 Matthew 2:5, 18, 23 Mark 10:21 Mark 10:21 Mark 10:21 Mark 10:21

Forward-Pointing C Reference C and D Target D Adverbs Adverbs Describe the manner in which something presupposed action is to be done, i.e. how Describe the manner in which something presupposed action is to be done, i.e. how Mark 4:30 Mark 4:30 Mark 4:30 Mark 4:30 1Corinthians 9:24, 26 1Corinthians 9:24, 26 1Corinthians 9:24, 26 1Corinthians 9:24, 26

A Point A -- B Counterpoint B Sets The use of μέν The use of μέν Anticipates some related point will follow Anticipates some related point will follow Creates a correlated set Creates a correlated set

A Point A -- B Counterpoint B Sets The use of exception or restriction The use of exception or restriction Negates an entire set, then adds one member back in the exception Negates an entire set, then adds one member back in the exception

A Point A -- B Counterpoint B Sets

The use of exception or restriction The use of exception or restriction Negates an entire set, then adds one member back in the exception Negates an entire set, then adds one member back in the exception The importance of exceptions The importance of exceptions The importance of exceptions The importance of exceptions Mark 6:4-5 Mark 6:4-5 Mark 6:4-5 Mark 6:4-5 2 Timothy 2:5 2 Timothy 2:5 2 Timothy 2:5 2 Timothy 2:5

A Point A -- B Counterpoint B Sets The use of ἀ λλά to correct or replace The use of ἀ λλά to correct or replace Can follow either a positive or negative statement Can follow either a positive or negative statement Replaced element Replaced element is not a member of original set is not a member of original set is syntactically parallel to what it replaces is syntactically parallel to what it replaces

A Point A -- B Counterpoint B Sets

The use of ἀ λλά to correct or replace The use of ἀ λλά to correct or replace Can follow either a positive or negative statement Can follow either a positive or negative statement Replaced element Replaced element is not a member of original set is not a member of original set is syntactically parallel to what it replaces is syntactically parallel to what it replaces Philippians 2:4 Philippians 2:4Philippians 2:4Philippians 2:4 1 Corinthians 14:2 1 Corinthians 14:2 1 Corinthians 14:2 1 Corinthians 14:2 Matthew 20:28 Matthew 20:28 Matthew 20:28 Matthew 20:28

Forward-Pointing Devices Exploit at least one of three factors: Exploit at least one of three factors: Redundancy Redundancy Marked usage Marked usage Delay/Interruption Delay/Interruption Effects Effects Creates some suspense through the delay Creates some suspense through the delay Attracts more attention than omitting reference Attracts more attention than omitting reference

Meta-comments When speakers stop saying what they are saying in order to comment on what is going to be said When speakers stop saying what they are saying in order to comment on what is going to be said Unneeded to process what follows Unneeded to process what follows Delays the introduction of what is commented on Delays the introduction of what is commented on “It is very important that you understand that …” “It is very important that you understand that …” “I want you to know that …” “I want you to know that …” “Of all the things that you have learned so far, the most important thing is that…” “Of all the things that you have learned so far, the most important thing is that…” “If you remember nothing else that I say, remember that…” “If you remember nothing else that I say, remember that…”

Meta-comments Ocean’s Eleven Ocean’s Eleven Ocean’s Eleven Ocean’s Eleven ‘I say to you…’ ‘I say to you…’ ‘I tell you the truth…’ ‘I tell you the truth…’ ‘We know that…’ ‘We know that…’ Romans 12:1, 3 Romans 12:1, 3 Romans 12:1, 3 Romans 12:1, 3 Galatians 1:9, 11 Galatians 1:9, 11 Galatians 1:9, 11 Galatians 1:9, 11 Matthew 5:18 versus 5:22 Matthew 5:18 versus 5:22 Matthew 5:18 versus 5:22 Matthew 5:18 versus 5:22

Historical Present Greek tenses do not encode time like English, but there is a relationship Greek tenses do not encode time like English, but there is a relationship Vast majority of aorists are past time references Vast majority of aorists are past time references Vast majority of presents are present time refs Vast majority of presents are present time refs Greek verbs primarily convey aspect Greek verbs primarily convey aspect Perfective-viewing the action as undifferentiated whole Perfective-viewing the action as undifferentiated whole Imperfective-viewing it as incomplete or ongoing Imperfective-viewing it as incomplete or ongoing

Historical Present “Historical” use stands out by using wrong temporal reference—present for past wrong temporal reference—present for past wrong aspect—imperfective for perfective wrong aspect—imperfective for perfective Primary functions Primary functions Highlighting a discontinuity in the discourse Highlighting a discontinuity in the discourse Figuratively making “a mountain out of a mole hill” Figuratively making “a mountain out of a mole hill” Matthew 15:1 Matthew 15:1 Matthew 15:1 Matthew 15:1 Highlighting a significant speech or event that follows Highlighting a significant speech or event that follows Mark 14:30 Mark 14:30 Mark 14:30 Mark 14:30

Processing Hierarchy Discourse-pragmatic Function which entails Processing Function which entails Semantic Function

Redundant Quotative Frames The use of extra verbs of speaking to ‘frame’ or introduce a speech, which are meant to draw attention to a surprising or important speech that follows. The use of extra verbs of speaking to ‘frame’ or introduce a speech, which are meant to draw attention to a surprising or important speech that follows. Functions Functions Highlighting speech at changes Highlighting speech at changes Mark 11:22 // Matthew 21:21 Mark 11:22 // Matthew 21:21 Mark 11:22 Matthew 21:21 Mark 11:22 Matthew 21:21 Segmenting/highlighting mid-speech w/o change Segmenting/highlighting mid-speech w/o change Luke 6:5 Luke 6:5 Luke 6:5 Luke 6:5

Sample passages Mark 10:17-22 Mark 10:17-22 Mark 10:17-22 Mark 10:17-22 Mt Mt Mt Mt Lk Lk Lk Lk