HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 1 Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS Section 1: Conducting Research Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations Section 3: Methods of Observation Section 4: The Experimental Method Section 5: Ethical Issues

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 2 Chapter 2 Chapter 2: Section 1 Conducting Research

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 3 Chapter 2 STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 1. Form a question (posing a question based on experience, psychological theory or common knowledge) * Construct: Cannot be seen or measured (EX: anxiety)…Therefore, research questions directed toward behavior. Section 1: Conducting Research

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 4 Chapter 2 2. Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess). Worded in an “If” / “Then” statement. EX: If I brush my teeth, then I can prevent cavities. 3. Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence through any of a variety of means)

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 5 Chapter 2 4. Analyze Results (looking for patterns or relationships in the evidence)…you ask what findings mean. 5. Draw a conclusion (determining whether the findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it if they do not) Section 1: Conducting Research

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 6 Chapter 2 Replication : For the findings of a study to be confirmed, the study must be replicated  the study must be repeated– and it must produce the same results as before.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE The Sound of Crying- short clip Introduction: The sound of a baby crying is among the MOST INTERESTING noises in the world. In this segment from 1981, researchers perform an experiment to find out whether the parents of a crying baby experience more stressful reaction to the noise than other people do. Describe the method and the outcome of the experiment performed in the video. 7 Chapter 2

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 8 Chapter 2 Chapter 2: Section 2 Surveys, Samples, and Populations

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 9 Chapter 2 The Survey Method Survey: People are asked to respond to a series of questions about a particular subject. EX: Interviews; questionnaires Can lead to inaccurate answers.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 10 Chapter 2 Populations and Samples : Target population: The whole group you want to study or describe. Researchers study a sample, which is only part of the target population.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 11 Chapter 2 Selecting Samples: Sample should be as similar as possible to the target population. Researchers use a random sample: Individuals are selected by chance from the target population. (EX: pulling names out of a hat) GOAL : represent the whole population if large enough.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 12 Chapter 2 Samples (continued): Stratified Sample: Subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample. EX: Including specific ethnic groups/races within a sample. Surveying 2 groups  Boys & Girls

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 13 Chapter 2 Generalizing Results: If impossible to obtain random or stratified sample, then must be cautious about generalizing findings to groups other than those from which samples were drawn. EX: If researchers found that men prefer certain types of cars, the researchers could NOT conclude that women prefer those same types of cars if the study did not include women.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 14 Chapter 2 Volunteer Bias: Bias: Predisposition to a certain point of view. Volunteer bias: The concept that people who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from those who do not volunteer. EX: May be more willing to disclose personal information; more interested in research

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 15 Chapter 2 Chapter 2: Section 3 Methods of Observation

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 16 Chapter 2 Several Observational Methods: 1. Testing Method 2. Case-Study Method 3. Longitudinal 4. Cross-Sectional Methods 5. Naturalistic-Observation Method 6. Laboratory-Observation Method

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 17 Chapter 2 1. The Testing Method: Psychological tests to learn about human behavior. Intelligence tests Personality tests

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 18 Chapter 2 2. The Case-Study Method: An in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group. EX: Sigmund Freud interviewed patients for many years.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 19 Chapter 2 Problems with Case Studies: Not remembering details. Distort past to impress researcher Researchers may encourage client to answer in certain way.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 20 Chapter 2 3. Longitudinal Methods LONGitudinal method: Researchers select a group of participants and then observe those participates over a period of time, often years or even decades. EX: studying improvement of language over time. Researchers must be VERY PATIENT!!

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 21 Chapter 2 4. Cross-Sectional Method: A method of research that looks at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span. ( less reliable than long. study) EX: If studying languages, then will study the following age groups at the SAME time: 12-months old; 14 months-old; 16 months-old

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 22 Chapter 2 5. Naturalistic-Observation Method: Also called field study The study of behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control on the part of the observer. EX: Observing differences in eating habits in restaurant between obese and slender people.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 23 Chapter 2 6. Laboratory-Observation Method : The study of behavior in a controlled situation. Animals usually studies in this setting!

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 24 Chapter 2 Analyzing Observations: Correlation: A measure of how closely one thing is related to another. EX: The taller you are, the more likely you can reach items on the top shelf.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 25 Chapter 2 Positive and Negative Correlation: Positive Correlation: A relationship between variables in which one variable increases as the other variable also increases. EX: People who have a higher need for achievement achieve higher salaries.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 26 Chapter 2 Negative Correlation: An unpleasant stimulus between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases. EX: The greater the stress, the poorer the health.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 27 Chapter 2 Limits of Correlation: Correlation DESCRIBES relationships…it does NOT reveal CAUSE and EFFECT.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 28 Chapter 2 Chapter 2: Section 4 The Experimental Method

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 29 Chapter 2 The Experimental Method: Experiment: A controlled scientific procedure to determine whether certain variables manipulated by the researcher have an effect on other variables.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 30 Chapter 2 Independent and Dependent Variables: Variables: Factors that are measured or controlled in a scientific study. Independent Variable: Factor that researchers manipulate/change so that they can determine its effect. Dependent Variable: Factor that is being measured and that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 31 Chapter 2 EXAMPLES : Can warm temperatures cause aggression in humans? Independent variable: Temperature Dependent variable: Level of aggression

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 32 Chapter 2 Experimental and Control Groups: Experimental groups: The participants who receive the treatment. Control group: The group that does not receive the treatment. Controlled Experiment: Includes both experimental AND control groups.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 33 Chapter 2 Examples : Do extracurricular activities make a difference in grades??? All factors—such as educational background— would be the same for all members. Experimental group: Be involved in activities. Controlled group: NOT involved in activities

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 34 Chapter 2 Would it be possible to conduct a controlled experiment ?? Do people who undergo therapy feel better, or feel better faster, than people who do not?

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 35 Chapter 2 The Placebo Effect: Placebo: A substance or treatment that has NO effect apart from a person’s belief in it. EX: “Sugar pill”

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 36 Chapter 2 Single-Blind Studies: Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 37 Chapter 2 Double-Blind Studies: An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo. EX: Food and Drug Administration

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 38 Chapter 2 Chapter 2: Section 5 Ethical Issues

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 39 Chapter 2 What is Ethics??? Ethics: Standards for proper and responsible behavior. Specific guidelines by APA American Psychological Association

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 40 Chapter 2 Research with People : Confidentiality: Records kept private! Informed Consent: People agree, or consent, to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been given the choice of whether or not to participate.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 41 Chapter 2 Deception : When is it OK to deceive the subject??? 1. When they believe that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm. 2. When they believe that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research. 3. When participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred.

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 42 Chapter 2 Research with Animals: Psychologists use animals only when there is no alternative and when they believe that the potential benefits outweigh the harm. NOT Most animals are NOT harmed!

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 43 Chapter 2 Is Harming Animals Ethical??? Rely on animals to avoid harming humans. EX: Brain research; separation of children (monkeys); mental disorders; visual and memory defects; high blood pressure; etc….

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 44 Chapter 2 Is it Ethical to Harm Animals for the Purpose of Helping Humans???

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 45 Chapter 2 Ethics in Using Data: Must present ALL evidence Even if it contradicts the hypothesis. EX: Side effects of medicine!

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE 46 Chapter 2 OVERVIEW OF ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH Protect study participants from harm Maintain the scientific integrity of the study Promote the dignity of the individual Foster human welfare Confidentiality Informed Consent Section 5: Ethical Issues

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment : 47 Chapter 2

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON P SYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Zimbardo’s Overall Experiment: In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best- known for his famous obedience experiment, was interested in expanding upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further investigate the impact of situational variables on human behavior.Philip Zimbardoobedience experiment The question the researchers asked was how would the participants react when placed in a simulated prison environment. "Suppose you had only kids who were normally healthy, psychologically and physically, and they knew they would be going into a prison-like environment and that some of their civil rights would be sacrificed. Would those good people, put in that bad, evil place—would their goodness triumph?" Zimbardo explained in one interview. 48 Chapter 2