A. Population  i. 18 th cen: reliable food supplies, earlier marriage, high birthrates, & more resistance to disease contributed to Eur. population growth (esp. England & Wales).  ii. Children a relatively high proportion of the pop. Growth contributed to migration from country to cities, Ireland to England, & Eur to Americas.

B. The agricultural rev  i. Rev began pre-18 th cen. New foods (many American) & forage crops produced more food per acre & allowed farmers to raise more cattle for meat/milk.  ii. Only wealthy landowners could afford new crops & methods. They enclosed their own land & common land to apply scientific farming methods – forcing former tenants to become sharecroppers or to migrate to cities.

 C. Trade & inventiveness  i. In most of Eur, increasing demand for goods was met w/ increasing production in traditional ways (adding craftsmen, putting-out system).  ii. Pop growth & ag productivity were accompanied by growth in trade & fascination w/ technology & innovation.

 D. Britain & Continental Europe  i. 18 th -cen Britain had characteristics explaining its peculiar role in the IR. Economic growth, pop growth, willingness to put new ideas into practice, strong mining & metal industries, world’s largest merchant marine, & relatively fluid social structure.  ii. Water transport system, unified market, highly developed commercial sector.  iii. Ecos of continental Eur experienced similar expansion in 18 th cen, but lack of markets & management skills and constant war from interrupted trade & weakened incentive to invest in new tech. Industrialization took hold in Eur after 1815, 1 st in Belgium & France. Eur gov’ts helped foster industrialization.

 A. Mass production: pottery  i. Pottery made/imported for aristocrats – poor couldn’t afford it. Taste for tea, coffee, & cocoa created a demand for porcelain (no off flavor).  ii. 1759: Josiah Wedgwood opened pottery business w/ division of labor & molds to mass-produce high-quality porcelain at an affordable cost.

 B. Mechanization: the cotton industry  i. Strong market for cotton cloth, but plant did not grow in Eur. Restrictions on imports led inventors/entrepreneurs to devise cheap mechanical methods for spinning thread & weaving cloth in England.  ii. Series of inventions: 1764, spinning jenny. 1769, Arkwright’s water frame. 1785, spinning mule. Increased supply of thread & demand for cloth led to power looms & other machinery/processes for textile production.  iii. Mechanization led to greater efficiency & lower prices. Cotton = America’s most valuable crop, both for export to England and, from 1820s, for American industry.  12/collectionnavigator?cuecard=486

 C. The iron industry  i. Iron used in Eurasia & Africa for 1000s of years; production associated with deforestation that increased charcoal cost & reduced iron output. Limited wood & high cost of skilled labor made iron rare & valuable outside China pre-18 th cen.  ii. 18 th cen:series of inventions (coke, puddling) allowed Britain to produce large amts of cheap iron. Increased production + lower cost = iron for numerous applications, including bridges & Crystal Palace.  iii. 18 th cen: interchangeable parts. Adopted for firearms, farm equipment, & sewing machines in 19 th cen. Use of machinery to mass-produce consumer goods w/ identical parts known as “American system of manufactures.”

 D. The steam engine  i. Most revolutionary invention of IR , Newcomen developed basic model to pump water out of coal mines.  ii. 1769, Watt improved model & made engines for sale to manufacturers. Provided source of power allowing factories to locate where animal, water, or wind power were lacking.  iii. 1780s, used to power riverboats in France & America. 1830s, more efficient models allowed ocean- going steamships.

 iv. After 1800, Trevithick & Stephenson built lighter, more powerful, high-pressure engines used for locomotives (replacing horses) on railways.  v. Railway building took off in Britain from ; major cities, then small towns, linked. US: railway booms in 1840s & 50s linked country & opened Midwest to ag development.  vi. In Eur, railways triggered industrialization. Industrial areas concentrated in iron- and coal-rich areas of N. France, Belgium, Ruhr, & Silesia.

 E. Communication over wires  i. Railroads accompanied by development of electric telegraph. 2 systems developed in 1837: 5-needle system in England, & Morse’s dot-dash system in the US.  ii. 1840s/50s, Americans & Europeans built the beginnings of a global communications network, regarding it as a clear measure of progress.

 A. The new industrial cities  i. Ind. brought about rapid growth of towns & development of megalopolises such as Greater London. Wealthy: fine homes, churches, public buildings. Poor: crowded, cheap, shoddy row houses.  ii. Pop growth, crowding, & lack of municipal services made urban problems more serious. Inadequate sewage disposal facilities, air/water pollution, & diseases made urban life unhealthy & contributed to high infant mortality/low life expectancy.  iii. Reports on horrors of slums led to municipal reforms after mid-19 th cen.

 B. Rural environments  i. Almost all Eur land transformed by humans pre-IR; deforestation ongoing problem. Americans transformed environment fast, clearing land, depleting it, & moving on.  ii. Industrialization relieved pressure on English environment in some ways: ag raw materials replaced by industrial materials or imports; coke & cheap iron reduced demand for wood.  iii. New transportation systems changed rural life. Toll roads, canals, & railroads linked isolated districts to centers of commerce, industry, & population.

 C. Working conditions  i. New, highly-paid opportunities for small # of skilled carpenters, metalworkers, & machinists; most industrial jobs were unskilled, repetitive, boring, badly paid, & had poor working conditions.  ii. Separation of work from home impacted women & family life.  iii. Women workers concentrated in textile mills; earned less than men. Husbands & wives worked in separate places. Most of female work force was young women working as domestic servants.

 iv. Poverty & employers’ preference for child workers led to high rates of child labor. Mid-19 th cen, Britain restricted child labor; Irish immigrants recruited.  v. 1 st, good wages/conditions to women; harsh conditions, long hours, & low pay became standard. Protests led factory owners to replace American women w/ Irish (accepted lower pay/worse conditions).  vi. IR increased demand for cotton, sugar, & coffee. This helped prolong slavery in US & Caribbean and to extend it into coffee regions of Brazil. 12/collectionnavigator?cuecard=360

 D. Changes in society  i. Increased disparities in income. Wages & standards of living fluctuated w/ the business cycle; little overall improvement until 1850s.  ii. Real beneficiaries of IR: middle class. Rising incomes allowed them to build own businesses, keep develop moral code in contrast to squalor/drunkenness of working class. k-12/collectionnavigator?cuecard=835

 A. Laissez faire and its critics  i. Adam Smith most famous proponent of laissez-faire (gov’t should stay out of business). Malthus & Ricardo argued that working-class poverty was a result of overpopulation & should be addressed not by gov’t but by later marriage & sexual restraint. Business people liked laissez-faire.  ii. Critics like Bentham (Eng) [Utilitarianism] & List (Ger) argued that state should manage eco & address social problems.

 B. Positivists & utopian socialists  i. Fr: Count of St. Simon developed positivism (scientific method to solve social problems).  ii. Utopian Socialists: Fourier (ideal society w/out capitalists) & Owen (industry can provide prosperity for all). Owen carried out reforms in own textile mill & encouraged Parliament to pass child labor laws & establish gov’t inspection of working conditions.

 C. Protests & reforms  i. Workers initially responded to bad conditions by changing jobs frequently, not going to work, doing poor work, & striking/rioting. Eventually moved beyond individual, unorganized resistance to create organizations for collective action (benevolent societies, trade unions).  ii. Mass movements persuaded Brit. gov’t to investigate abuses & pass legislation like Factory Act of 1833, Mines Act of 1842, & repeal of Corn Laws in European revs of 1848 revealed widespread discontent, but gov’ts did not seek reform through accommodation.

 A. Russia  i. Industrialization carried out by state W/ assistance of foreign engineers (almost no Russian middle class).  ii. Until late 19 th cen, limited interest in industry & fear of Western liberalism & working/middle classes led gov’t to import most industrial goods & pay by exporting grain & timber. Russia fell further behind Eur economically & technologically.

 B. Egypt  i. Early 19 th cen, ruler Muhammad Ali began industrialization funded by export of wheat & cotton and protected by high tariff on imports.  ii. Prospect of powerful modern Egypt threatened British; 1839, Britain forced Muhammad Ali to eliminate import duties. W/out tariff protection, Egyptian industry could not compete w/ cheap British products; Egypt became economic dependency of Britain.

 C. India  i. Cheap machine-made British textiles forced Indian spinners & hand-weavers out of work. Most became landless peasants; India exported raw materials & imported British industrial goods.  ii. Railroads, coal mining, & telegraph lines introduced in mid-19 th cen. Some Indian entrepreneurs established own textile mills; overall, industrialization slow because Brit admin did not encourage Indian industry.

 A. Between 1760 & 1851 new technologies increased humans’ control over nature & transformed the environment.  B. This power increased disparities between individuals & societies and brought changes in work & family life. Social results sparked intellectual debates; society was slow to control abuses.  C. By 1850s, the IR had spread to W. Eur & the US and was contributing to a shift in the balance of power between Eur & China.