1 Argument & Rhetoric Raymond M. Vince Composition II February 2006

2 What is Rhetoric? Rhetoric is the Art of Persuasion  But how do we persuade others?  Rhetoric uses various strategies or appeals.  The Greeks among the first to study Rhetoric.  Especially Aristotle in his Art of Rhetoric  Aristotle identifies three persuasive strategies.  These are the appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos.

3 What are these Appeals? Ethos The Appeal to Credibility [Gk. character, custom ] Pathos The Appeal to the Emotions & Values [Gk. suffering, passion, feeling] Logos The Appeal to the Reason [ Gk. word, thought, reason] , , ,

4 How can we evaluate Rhetoric? Questions to ask:  Who is the speaker/writer? Who is the audience?  What credibility has speaker/writer established?  What emotions or values are being appealed to?  What kind of claim is being made?  What evidence/reasons are relevant to support the claim?  What assumptions – on both sides - may be hidden?

5 Evaluating Ethos  Who is the speaker/writer?  What position does he/she have?  What kind of authority does he/she have?  Is it academic, political, medical, religious, etc?  Is he/she trustworthy or is there a credibility gap?  Is the language legitimate or manipulative?  POV? Inclusive, demeaning, or not involved?

6 Evaluating Pathos  What kind of emotional appeal is being used?  Which emotions are being stirred?  Nostalgia, hate, envy, love, prejudice, or fear?  What values are assumed or appealed to?  Is the appeal legitimate or manipulative?  Emotional appeals are powerful. Why?  Because we act only when emotions are stirred.

7 What is Logos? Logos is a rational argument, a logical relationship between a claim, the reasons, & the assumptions. Reasons Claim Assumptions = if… then…

8 Evaluating Logos  Is the claim a well-formed, precise idea?  Can the idea be expressed in a coherent sentence?  Answer a question relevant to the community?  Justified or supported by reasons & evidence?  Are these reasons acceptable to the community?  Are the hidden assumptions also acceptable?

9 Failures in Logos Common fallacies in using logic:  Begging the Question – Assuming your conclusion.  Complex Question – “Stopped beating wife yet?”  Hasty Generalization – Inadequate evidence.  Post hoc, ergo propter hoc – After this, because this.  Stacking the deck – Ignoring counter-evidence.  Non sequitur – The claim does not follow the evidence.  False dilemma – Only extreme options – either A or B.

10 Failures in Ethos & Pathos Common fallacies in using ethos or pathos:  Ad hominem – personal attack not issues.  Guilt by association – stereotyping group.  Poisoning the well – biased argument.  False authority – no genuine credibility.  Ad populum – bandwagon – appeal to prejudice etc.  Threat/Reward – using bribery to persuade.  Red Herring – raising irrelevant, emotional issues.

11 Statistical Arguments Statistical arguments common in science etc. But statistics can be misused & prove deceptive.  What kind of average – mean, median, mode?  How much deviation or scatter in results?  Conscious or unconscious bias in evidence?  Is there information missing from evidence?  What conclusions can legitimately be drawn?

12 Summary & Sources  Rhetoric is the art of persuasion.  Rhetoric uses the appeals of logos, ethos, & pathos.  Logos involves a claim, reasons, & assumptions.  We should evaluate logos, ethos, & pathos.  We need to recognize failures in reasoning – fallacies.  Gary L. Hatch. Arguing in Communities. 3 rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Chapters 2-4.  X. J. Kennedy et. Al. The Bedford Guide for College Writers 6 th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2002.