Chapter 5 Groups, Networks, and Organizations

Chapter Outline  Human Relations  Social Processes  Groups  Social Networks  Complex Organizations  Where this leaves us

Human Relationships On the micro level, sociology is the study of relationships:  how they begin  how they function  how they change  how they affect both individuals and the community

Social Processes Social Processes are the forms of interaction through which people relate to one another.  Exchange – the voluntary interaction from which all parties expect some reward. Can be unequal, but very unequal exchange usually continues only when good alternatives are scarce.  Norm of reciprocity – the expectation that people will return favors and strive to maintain a balance of obligation in social exchange relationships.

Connections: The norm of reciprocity applied to dating relationships…  If you buy your date dinner, you may feel that he or she owes you something in return.  If you have had your dinner bought for you, you may believe you are indebted to your date…and do things you really don’t want to do in exchange.  Disagreement on who owes what to whom, can create situations that escalate into serious misunderstandings – even date rape

Cooperation:  Interaction that occurs when people work together to achieve shared goals.  Cooperation works at both the individual level and in broader society: ex. Friends may cooperate to share resources in forming a study group. ex. Nations may cooperate in trade embargos to exert pressure on other nations not abiding by treaty agreements. Social Processes

Competition:  Competition is a struggle over scarce resources that is regulated by shared rules.  A positive outcome of competition is that it stimulates achievement and heightens people’s aspirations.  A negative outcome of competition is that it often results in personal stress, reduced cooperation, and social inequalities Social Processes

Example: When the resource of children’s toys is not regulated by norms that specify the rules of fair play, conflict often results. Conflict:  The struggle over scarce resources not regulated by shared rules. It may include attempts to destroy, injure, or neutralize rivals

Social Processes in Everyday Life  Exchange, cooperation, competition, and even conflict are important aspects of our relationships with others  We interact with people in a wide range of relationships, both temporary and permanent, formal and informal

Groups A collection of two or more people that has two special characteristics: 1.Its members interact within a shared social structure of statuses, roles, and norms. 2.Its members recognize that they are mutually dependent.

Connections: groups in everyday life… The Kappa Delta Phi fraternity is a group because it has structure and its members recognize a mutual interest or dependency. On the other hand…  Spectators at a football game are a crowd with little structure and limited interaction.  Red-headed people are a category that has no social structure. Crowds and categories are not groups

Types of Groups:  Reference groups are groups that individuals regularly compare themselves to. - comparison to groups that are better off than we are can produce feelings of unhappiness due to relative deprivation – feeling deprived relative to another group  Primary groups are characterized by intimate, face-to-face interaction, are primary to our human nature.  Secondary groups are formal, large, and highly structured. Groups

Primary and Secondary Groups  Many of the groups we participate in combine characteristics of primary and secondary groups.  The elementary school classroom is a secondary group, yet many of the friendships developed there will last for 6, 12, or even 40 years. Groups

The Shift to Secondary Groups:  Preindustrial times had mostly primary groups – strong kinship ties and sense of community  Industrialization brought more complexity and mobility – dependency on primary relationships declined – people turned to secondary relationships to meet their needs. Primary and Secondary Groups

Differences between Primary and Secondary Groups PrimarySecondary SizeSmallLarge Relationships Personal, intimate Impersonal, aloof CommunicationFace to faceIndirect DurationPermanentTemporary Cohesion Strong sense of loyalty Based on self-interest Decisions Traditions and personal feeling Rules and rational thought Social StructureInformalFormal

Groups Interaction in Groups  Size – smallest group is two people. As groups get larger, interaction becomes more structured, impersonal and less personally satisfying.  Physical Proximity – interaction occurs more often when members are physically close to one another.  Communication Patterns – interaction can be either facilitated or hindered.  Cohesion – group has high levels of interaction; strong feelings of attachment and dependency

Common Patterns of Communication in Five Member Groups  The circles represent individuals and the lines are flows of communication.  The all-channel network is found in groups in which status differences are not present or are minimal.  The wheel is associated with important status differences within the group.

Groups Group Conformity  Many of the things we deal with and believe in are not true or correct in any absolute sense; they are simply what our groups have agreed to accept as right.  Researchers who look at individual decision making in groups find that group interaction increases conformity.

The Asch Experiment in Group Conformity In Asch’s experiment, subjects were instructed to select the line on Card B that was equal in length to the line on Card A. The results showed that many people will give an obviously wrong answer in order to conform to the group. Groups

Group Conformity and Authority Milgram Experiment :  Experiment on learning where subjects were ‘teachers’. ‘Teachers’ administered what they thought were electric shocks to learners to gave wrong answers.  2/3 teachers gave shocks until stopped by experimenter, having gone well past ‘danger’ on shock machine.  Conformity of teachers was highest in presence of experimenter and of other teachers who appeared to go along with the experimenter.

Groups Group Conformity Understanding Small Group Conformity:  individuals are likely to adopt group views when they are not sure of their own knowledge or views  individuals adopt group views because they fear being rejected. Exclusion is a most powerful threat.

Groups Group Decision Making  Generally groups strive to reach consensus.  As groups grow in size, there is a tendency toward majority rule.  Group members’ opinions converge over time in a Choice Shift.  A special case of choice shift is Group Think – when pressures to agree are strong enough to stifle critical thinking.

Social Networks  A critical part of our social network is our strong ties—the handful of people to whom we feel intense loyalty and intimacy.  Like these sisters, women are somewhat more apt than men to choose their strong ties from among family members. A social network is an individual’s total set of relationships

Strong and Weak Ties  Strong ties are relationships characterized by intimacy, emotional intensity and sharing.  Weak ties are characterized by low intensity and low intimacy.  Ties vs.. Groups – strong and weak ties apply to one-on-one relationships; Primary and secondary groups apply to the group as a whole. Social Networks

Ties versus Groups Social Networks

Voluntary Associations  Joining an amateur baseball league or other voluntary association is guaranteed to increase our network of weak ties.  If we become close friends with any fellow members or teammates, we also increase our network of strong ties. Social Networks

Voluntary Associations Nonprofit organizations designed to allow individuals an opportunity to pursue their shared interests collectively. Functions of Voluntary Associations – provide means for participatory satisfaction, engagement with similar others, longer life. Participation in Voluntary Associations – membership can be passive (in name only) with only superficial benefits; or active, with deeper benefits; contingent on opportunities

Social Networks Community A collection of individuals characterized by dense, cross-cutting social networks with both strong and weak ties. Computer Networks and Communities – opportunities for social networking in virtual community.  Endless array of weak tie opportunities that exponentially increases the size and scope of networks. Option of developing strong ties and community in areas of special interest.

Complex Organizations Large, formal organizations with complex status networks.  A bureaucracy is a special type of complex organization characterized by explicit rules and hierarchical authority structure – designed to maximize efficiency.

The “Ideal Type” of Bureaucracy – Weber’s Theory 1.A specialized division of labor 2.A hierarchy of authority 3.Formal rules and regulations 4.Impersonal relationships 5.Careers based on tenure and technical qualification 6.Efficiency Complex Organizations

Real Bureaucracies – Organizational Culture Refers to the pattern of norms and values that structures how business is actually carried out in an organization.  Cohesion is key to successful organizational culture.  Successful organizational cultures build loyalty, worker satisfaction and commitment.

Critiques of Bureaucracies  Ritualism – rules will be followed whether they apply or not.  Alienation – the emphasis on impersonal rules and hierarchies reduces cohesion.  Structured inequality – tendency to concentrate decision-making in the hands of a few powerful people. Complex Organizations Despite being the standard organizational form in the modern world, it has several major drawbacks:

McDonaldization  The process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more sectors of American society.  Principles of “McDonaldization” efficiency calculability predictability control Complex Organizations

Where This Leaves Us…  Humans are social beings.  We live our lives in relationships, groups, networks and complex organizations.  We accomplish everyday life through social exchange and cooperation.  Sometimes this carries risk as exchange and cooperation can turn to competition and conflict.

Summary  Relationships are characterized by exchange, cooperation, competition and conflict.  We compare ourselves to people in our reference group. Intimate, frequent, durable interactions occur with our primary group. Superficial, temporary interactions occur with our secondary group.  Our social network consists of strong and weak ties. These differ in intensity and scope. Dense cross- cutting networks form communities.  Voluntary organizations form on shared interests. Complex organizations are formal and diversified. Bureaucracies are formal complex organizations that strive for efficiency, but also have negative effects.

Quick Quiz

1.The expectation that people will return favors and strive to maintain a balance of obligation in social relationships is called: A.the norm of reciprocity. B.the norm of unending service. C.tenure. D.cooperation.

Answer: A The expectation that people will return favors and strive to maintain a balance of obligation in social relationships is called the norm of reciprocity.

2.Which of the following is an example of the norm of reciprocity in action? A.Joe buys his new infant son a baseball glove. B.Penny gives Margaret a ride to school all semester, so Margaret types Penny’s term paper. C.Joe buys himself an ice cream cone. D.Margot yells at Rob after he yells at her.

Answer: B  The following is an example of the norm of reciprocity in action: Penny gives Margaret a ride to school all semester, so Margaret types Penny’s term paper.

3.Two or more people who interact on the basis of shared social structure and recognize mutual dependency are called: A.a group. B.an aggregate. C.a category. D.a bond.

Answer: A Two or more people who interact on the basis of shared social structure and recognize mutual dependency are called a group.

4. A form of bureaucracy growing in popularity that follows the principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control is called: A) Industrialization B) Weberization C) McDonalization D) Institutionalization

Answer: C The form of bureaucracy that is growing in popularity worldwide and that relies on the principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability and control is called McDonalization.