Chapter 2 Developmental Psychology A description of the general approach to behavior by developmental psychologists

Concept of Behavior There is no single, overarching, comprehensive developmental theory  Not at the level of scientific understanding discussed in Ch. 1 Various “minitheories” are used to account for specific developmental domains  e.g., social-emotional, perceptual, language Text books tend to adopt a cognitive approach to development

Why Such Theoretical Diversity? Subject matter varies widely  e.g. genetics, biology, and environment Structural approach to behavior is taken  Behavior is largely classified according to its form or structure Research methods and resulting data do not represent basic scientific facts  Correlational research

Form versus Function A structural approach (Form) helps organize and communicate about subject matter But... Overlooks function/ hinders functional analysis of behavior  Behaviors that differ in form may have similar functions  Example: “Attachment” Most behaviors can be classified according to more than one form  Example: baby reaching for mom

Example: “Attachment” Developmental Psychology Classifies types of attachment based on topography of behavior  infant leaves side of parent and explores environment = secure attachment  Infant clings to parent & shows signs of distress when parent leaves = anxious attachment

Example: “Attachment” The topography of the child's behavior is the indicator of development  Secure or anxious attachment are considered different behaviors requiring different explanations From a functional perspective, the differing responses may serve the same function (i.e. reinforcement)  Exploring = reinforced by finding new toys  Clinging = reinforced by being held/consoled

Example: Baby reaching for Mom when she is in close proximity This response can be classified according to several categories or “minitheories”  Memory  Perception  Motor behavior  Social behavior

Form versus Function What is the best way to conceptualize behavior in terms of the goals of science (control, prediction, understanding)? BOTH form and function are necessary for a comprehensive account of behavior A concentration on function is important for answering how and why behavior occurs

Structural Approaches & Explanations of Behavior Different forms of behavior are assumed to be qualitatively different and thus require different theories  This leads to the abundance of “minitheories” in developmental psychology  “Theoretical Eclecticism”

Structural Approaches & Explanations of Behavior Circular reasoning (reification) 1)Class of behavior is given a name 2)Name is referred to as concrete object and becomes the object of study 3)Name of class becomes the explanation of observed behavior Only evidence of the concept is the behavior to be explained

Example of Circular Reasoning 1) Infant displays certain behavior toward absent objects- behavior is called “object permanence” 2) “object permanence” is studied as a concept 3) When infant behave a certain way toward absent objects it is said to happen because they now possess “object permanence”

Problems with Circular Reasoning Is not explanatory Do not address the actual determinants of behavior May prohibit development of more scientific explanations

Research & Theory in Developmental Psychology Correlational Research Stage Theories

Correlational Research Drawbacks Nonexperimental observations generate correlations between two variables  Do not represent functional relations Age & gender are commonly used as independent variables  Scientific definition of IV includes “those whose values are directly manipulated by the experimenter” (McCain & Segal, 1988) Correlation does not mean causation  Yet causal inferences are drawn from data

Correlational Research Value/ Purpose Allows some prediction of behavior Can suggest something about IVs Demonstrates whether a behavior is present or not at a particular age, but not how that behavior came to be  Age becomes cause of behavior

Correlational Research & Theory Construction Changes in age and changes in behavior are frequently positively correlated These correlations often lead to stage theories of development

Stage Theories Discontinuous view of development Stages seem to represent fixed, biological physiological changes Stages are independent of of behavior- environment interaction examples: Piaget, Freud, Greenspan, Maslow

Problems with Structural Approach to Behavior Change 1)Structures are not directly observable e.g., Freud's id, ego, superego 2)Underlying behavioral processes are overlooked or made unclear 3)Description is confused with explanation Transitional nature of behavior change is ignored

Problems with Structural Approach to Behavior Change 4) “Constitutional-maturational determinants” of behavior change are emphasized at expense of environmental/physiological variables 5) Optimism about potential benefits of environmental manipulations is reduced 6) Interpretations easily lead to reification (circular reasoning) - determinants of behavior come from inside the child - does not explain or help us understand behavior

Developmental Theory Assessed Generality  Absence of basic functional units of analysis  No theory can encompass more than its own limited domain, thus “minitheories” Testability (both empirical & logical support)  Theories that rely on hypothetical, cognitive structures cannot be tested External Validity  Precise predictions are almost impossible if a theory is not based on classes of functional relations between observable events

Developmental Theory Assessed Utility * Many developmental theories do direct attention to “interesting phenomena”  Less successful at generating practical applications  Applications should be tempered if theories do not meet scientific credibility Parsimony  Assumptions are hypothetical

Developmental Theory Assessed Verdict The general theoretical approach found in developmental psychology does not meet criteria for scientific understanding Does not explain behavioral development well