© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sociological Research 2 10 th edition Sociology: A Brief Introduction Richard T. Schaefer

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 2 What Is the Scientific Method? Major Research Designs Ethics of Research Feminist Methodology The Data-Rich Future Social Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human SexualitySocial Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human Sexuality Appendix I: Using Statistics and GraphsAppendix I: Using Statistics and Graphs Appendix II: Writing a Research ReportAppendix II: Writing a Research Report

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 3 A Look Ahead How do sociologists go about setting up a research project? How do they ensure that their results are reliable and accurate? Can they avoid violating the rights of those they study?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 4 What is the Scientific Method? Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem –Defining the problem –Reviewing the literature –Formulating the hypothesis –Selecting the research design and collecting and analyzing data –Developing the conclusion

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 5 Scientific Method Defining the Problem –Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept Reviewing the Literature –Refines problem under study

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 6 Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis –Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables –Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: Action depends on influence of the independent variable

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 7 Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis (continued) –Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other –Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 8 Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data –Selecting the Sample Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected Snowball samples (Convenience Samples): participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 9 Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data –Ensuring Validity and Reliability Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 10 Scientific Method Developing the Conclusion –Supporting the Hypothesis Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis –Controlling for other factors Control variable: factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 11 Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 12 Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 13 Figure 2-3: Causal Logic

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 14 Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 15 Major Research Designs Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically –Surveys –Observation –Experiments –Existing sources

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 16 Surveys Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think –Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning –Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 17 Surveys Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 18 Ethnography Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community –Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation –Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 19 Experiments Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables –Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable –Control group: Not exposed to independent variable –Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 20 Use of Existing Sources Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 21 Table 2-1: Top Reasons Men and Women Had Sex Source: Meston and Buss 2007:506.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 22 Research Today 2-1: Surveying Cell Phone Users –Are you a cell phone–only user? If so, do you generally accept calls from unknown numbers? What problems might result from excluding cell phone–only users from survey research? –Which of the problems that arise during telephone surveys might also arise during Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys involve some unique problems?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 23 Research Today 2-2: Gender Messages in Scouting –Did you participate in scouting as a child? If so, were you aware of the gender messages you were receiving as part of the scouting experience? How did you react? –If you were a Scout leader yourself, what kind of gender model would you attempt to be? How would you become that kind of model?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 24 Ethics of Research Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) –Maintain objectivity and integrity in research –Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity –Protect subjects from personal harm –Preserve confidentiality –Seek informed consent –Acknowledge collaboration and assistance –Disclose sources of financial support

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 25 Table 2-2: Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 26 Table 2-3: Major Research Designs

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 27 Ethics of Research Confidentiality Conflict of Interest Value Neutrality –Investigators have ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 28 Taking Sociology to Work Dave Eberbach, Associate Director, Iowa Institute for Community Alliances –Do you know what you want to be doing 10 years from now? If so, how might a knowledge of statistics help you in your future occupation? –What kinds of statistics might you find in the Human Service Planning Alliance’s data warehouse? Where would they come from?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 29 Feminist Methodology Feminist perspective had greatest impact on current generation of researchers –See work and family as closely integrated –Recently, interested in self-injury –Studies tend to overlook women –Tend to involve and consult subjects more than other researchers

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 30 The Data Rich Future Massive increases in available data allow sociologists to undertake new research –H1N1 flu strain –crime patterns –Increased data raises concern about individual privacy

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 31 Research Today 2-3: Lying for Love Online –Have you tried using an online dating service? If so, were you truthful in describing yourself online? Did the people you were matched with turn out to be truthful? –Why do you think online daters engage in deception if they are hoping eventually to meet someone face-to-face?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 32 Studying Human Sexuality Looking at the Issue –Important to increase scientific understanding of human sexuality Privacy concerns Preconceptions Myths Beliefs –Many people oppose research on human sexuality

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 33 Studying Human Sexuality Applying Sociology –Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S. –Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 34 Studying Human Sexuality Applying Sociology –Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research –According to Weber’s ideal of value neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is embarrassing or supportive of government institutions

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 35 Studying Human Sexuality Initiating Policy –Sociologists developed the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S. Private funding NHSLS data allow interest groups to address public policy issues

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 36 Figure 2-5: Median Age of First Sex Source: Durex 2007.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 37 Using Statistics Percentage: Shows portion of 100 Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values Mode: Single most common value in a series of values Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 38 Reading Graphs Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions –Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables –Graphs are often easier for public to understand

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 39 Figure 2-6: Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 40 Figure 2-7: People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 41 Writing a Research Report Finding Information –Check textbooks –Use library catalog –Use computerized periodical indexes –Examine government documents –Use newspapers –Ask people, organizations, and agencies –Consult instructor

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 42 Writing a Research Report Writing the Report –Focus on topic –Develop an outline –Work ahead of deadline –Read paper aloud Including Citations and References