Debate: Reasoning

Claims & Evidence Review Claims are statements that serve to support your conclusion. Evidence is information discovered through research and offered in support of your claim.

Reasoning & Proof Reasoning is the process of supporting a claim through explanation. Reasoning establishes the logical connection between a claim and its evidence, and all claims and the conclusion. Proof is the product of evidence and reasoning which serves as sufficient reason to make the claim acceptable.

Moreover… Evidence helps to establish claims as true. Reasoning helps to establish claims as relevant and arguments as valid.

P = E + R PROOF = EVIDENCE + REASONING

Types of Reasoning Generalization Analogy Cause-Effect Sign Scientific Methodology Authority Rhetorical question

Generalization If individual members of a group all share a characteristic, and a pattern is observed, then that characteristic may be applied to other members of that group. If you draw a general conclusion based on some specific examples, you have made a generalization. The example is the evidence offered in support of a Generalization.

What makes a good generalization?

#1 Are there enough examples? If generalization is well known, you only need a few examples. For a generalization not so well known, you might need many examples.

#2 Are the examples typical of the group? A typical example is one that represents the group as an average case. Avoid using extreme cases/outliers/anomalies as examples. These are considered exceptions to the generalization, not indicators or it.

#3 Are there significant counterexamples? Counterexamples are instances in which the generalization does not hold true.

Analogy A comparison: To draw a conclusion about an unknown based on its similarity to a model that is known. The analogy makes the assumption “This unknown example is like this other known example.” There are always differences between the known and unknown examples—the closeness of fit between your model and the unknown is important.

What makes a good analogy? The test for a good analogy is whether the essential similarities outweigh the essential differences in the characteristic under consideration. If the two examples are not similar in the essential areas, we have a false analogy. An extended analogy is a more detailed examination of a known to an unknown, often using a list of many points of comparison.

Two types of analogies: Literal Analogy is one in which we make a direct comparison between two things. Figurative Analogy is where we compare the relationship between two things to the relationship between two OTHER things to describe how one relationship is like another. This may also be known as metaphor.

Cause-Effect Reasoning Two phenomena that have either a positive or negative correlation, and one phenomenon causes the other (i.e. Causation/Causality). The form of this reasoning: “If ____________ then ____________.”

Cause-Effect Continued Causality: Causality (also referred to as causation) is the relation between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first.eventeffect

Other Linkage between Phenomena Correlation: A mutual relationship or connection between two or more things that is not necessarily causal. Association: A connection or cooperative link between phenomena that is not causal.

Sign Argument When one thing occurs, so does another. The sign is the observed phenomena (think symptom in medicine … ) The signified is the phenomenon referred to or predicted by the sign. Sign Arguments are reversible.

Meaning… “If X, then Y. And, if Y, then X.”

Scientific Methodology The systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses in an attempt to arrive at a conclusion, finding, or theory.

Scientific Methodology Cont… To be utilized in debate, the methodology used to acquire any given evidence must be rationally explained in support of given that evidence and its link to the claim and conclusion.

Authority Claim is based entirely on what the “authority” or expert says. Apply same rules for “expertise” in Evidence.

Rhetorical Question A question asked in the interest of persuasion. Typically these questions are not expected to be answered aloud, but by each audience member to him/her self. Examples?

Remember… Each claim is supported by a piece of evidence. Each piece of evidence is supported by reasoning.

Reasoning links all pieces of your argument together: Evidence to claims Claims to other claims Claims to conclusion