Lesson 1 1. Conditions were brutal and workdays were long. In the mines, cave-ins, explosions, and gas fumes were a way of life. The mills were also dirty, dusty, dangerous, and unhealthy, and workers were often locked up in the hot rooms. Employees might have decided they would be better off if the public owned the means of production because income for the owners would not be the only goal. The workers' quality of life would matter too.

Lesson 2 2. At first, the Austrian government agreed to reforms in an effort to end demonstrations. Within a few months, Austria reconsidered, probably because the Hapsburg rulers were unwilling to reduce the size or wealth of the Austrian Empire. The Austrian army defeated the Czech rebels and took back Vienna. The following year, Austria took back control of Hungary with the help of the Russian army.

Lesson 3 3. The fact that both the middle class and the working class shared the prosperity helped stabilize the country and protect it from the revolutions that rocked much of Europe.

Lesson 4 4. The leader in Haiti was François- Dominique Toussaint-Louverture, in Mexico Miguel Hidalgo, in Argentina José de San Martin, and in Venezuela Simón Bolivar. All were inspired by the ideals of equality and freedom of the American and French revolutions. San Martin and Bolivar were also members of the creole elite, who as a group resented the power of the foreign-born peninsulares.

Lesson 5 5. Romanticism was a reaction to the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. Individualism is a belief in and appreciation of the uniqueness of each person. Factory owners wanted their workers to be interchangeable, more like cogs in a machine than individual human beings.

21st Century Skills 6. Belgium, France, and the German states industrialized quickly. In these countries, government policies such as funding the building of roads, canals, and railroads encouraged industrialization. 7. American, British, and other foreign investors built transportation and communication systems and power plants. They introduced refrigeration, steam engines, and mining equipment. But they also shipped raw materials home. Their workers turned the materials into finished products that Latin American consumers paid high prices for. Latin American countries might have maintained economic independence if they had started industries that provided jobs for their people and kept most of the profits from selling finished products. They could have then exported finished goods instead of importing them.

Exploring the Essential Questions 8. Students' answers will vary but should include accurate and relevant information and images about changes in each category from each location specified. Their explanations should name each change and its causes.

Document-Based Questions 9. He says it should be up to parents, not the government, to decide whether to let their children work under such conditions. 10. Yes. His evidence closely matches both the work hours and the room temperatures cited in the chapter.

Extended-Response Question 11. Students' answers will vary but should discuss the formation of an industrial economy and the rise of the working and middle classes. They should also discuss the rise of constitutionalism, nationalism, and democracy and how the rise of the middle class was important in the movement away from absolutism.

Chapter Summary Why are some periods in history described as periods of transition? (At those times something is ending and something else is starting to develop.) What types of historical groups and institutions might be declining during a period of transition? (Ethnic groups, social classes, forms of government, religious beliefs, civilizations, technologies, and economic systems.) How might innovation affect one of these groups or institutions? (A new invention replacing older technology or a new cultural movement replacing an earlier one.) How might revolution affect one of these groups or institutions? (A political revolution overthrowing a form of government or an invasion by an ethnic group overthrowing a kingdom or empire.)