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Biology: What is Life? life study of Properties of Life Cellular Structure: the unit of life, one or many Metabolism: photosynthesis, respiration, fermentation, digestion, gas exchange, secretion, excretion, circulation--processing materials and energy Growth: cell enlargement, cell number Movement: intracellular, movement, locomotion Reproduction: avoid extinction at death Behavior: short term response to stimuli Evolution: long term adaptation

Obtaining Food Heterotrophs need to http://www.casarioblanco.com/poison-dart-frog.jpg http://aichlee.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/blue-bird-of-paradise.jpg Obtaining Food Heterotrophs need to feed on other organisms, their by-products, or their dead bodies to survive

Heterotrophic Organisms Herbivores: feed directly upon producers Carnivores: feed directly upon herbivores or other carnivores Omnivores: feed upon both producers and consumers Parasites: feed upon living organisms causing disease Saprobes: feed upon by-products and/or dead bodies (aka detritivore) Food is required as fuel for respiration: Cytosolic Glycolysis: sugars to pyruvate Mitochondrial Matrix Krebs Cycle: pyruvate to CO2 and NADH Mitochondrial Cristae ETS/Oxidative Phosphorylation: NADH and O2 to H2O and ADP + Pi to ATP

Here is an invertebrate animal collecting plant byproducts. ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Nectar is a good supply of carbohydrate…not much else Pollen is a better supply of protein, vitamins, and minerals

Prokaryotes intake small organics from the surrounding medium… by facilitated diffusion or active transport across cell membrane Thus digestion is extracellular Digestive enzymes secreted into the medium convert macromolecules into subunits for uptake http://library.thinkquest.org/3564/Cells/cell91.gif

Here is a fungus body…these penetrate living or dead tissues… saprobe parasite ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company The rhizoids or haustoria digest the material or cells they penetrate and siphon off small molecules to support the fungal mycelium. Fungal digestion is basically EXTERNAL: Digestive enzymes are secreted into the food Subunits are absorbed by diffusion and active transport

These fungi are more “active” in their feeding... They trap and strangle their nematode prey: Dactylella drechsleri B Arthrobotrys dactyloides sticky traps lasso ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company What is the difference between these two images?

engulfing prey by phagocytosis Two Paramecium and one Pelomyxa engulfing prey by phagocytosis Paramecium ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company entrapment in food vacuole for digestion Pelomyxa An example of internal digestion

The feeding of Paramecium itself is also internal digestion: cytopharynx (mouth) waste elimination oral groove (alveolus) endocytosis (phagocytosis) cilia movement exocytosis (anal pore) contractile vacuole capture food vacuole contractile vacuole subunit absorption enzymatic digestion micronucleus macronucleus

Intracellular food digestion: Golgi lysosome enzymes endoplasmic reticulum subunits waste exo- cytosis phago- cytosis food vacuole digestive vacuole phagocytosis of food food vacuole and lysosome formation lysosome + food vacuole = digestive vacuole enzymatic digestion of food absorption of subunits exocytosis of waste

Obtaining Food The origin of animals? flagellum (undulipodium) microvilli cell body Most primitive “animal”? Parazoa (no true tissues) sponges Metazoa (true tissues) other animals Is there an protozoan that “acts” and “eats” like an animal? Choanoflagellates Choanocytes  sponge feeding cells very similar!

Porifera – primitive animal Incurrent pores: ostia Body wall: choanocytes for filter feeding Excurrent pore: osculum (here huge) Body wall has mineral spicules High cellular mobility and totipotency Photo credit: Mike please provide original source of this image

Gastrovascular cavity digestion in Cnidarian polyp gland cell secretes digestive enzymes to disintegrate prey item into smaller particles and anus! ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company a blind pouch system digestive cell takes in smaller particles for intracellular digestion This is a combination of external and internal digestion There is also a unique prey capture process in cnidarians

A closer look: prey capture phagocytosis for internal digestion Cnidocil (modified cilium) Ciliary Receptor Cnidocyte prey capture Interstitial Cell Receptor Cell Nematocyst Epidermis Neuron Longitudinal Muscle Fibrils Mesoglea Circular Muscle Fibrils http://library.thinkquest.org/26153/marine/sketch/597b.jpg Gastrodermis Digestive Cell phagocytosis for internal digestion Granular secretions enzyme secretion for external digestion Food Vacuole Gland cell Cilia

Cnidoblasts (cyan) contain nematocysts (yellow and blue) ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company This feature of cnidarians is perhaps most famous in the scyphozoans (jellyfish) and hydrozoans (Portuguese-man-o-war)

What do these corrugations do for Dugesia? In flatworms, such as Dugesia, and like cnidarians, the mouth is also the anus…the digestive system is a blind pouch. ocellus What do these corrugations do for Dugesia? Increase the surface area for nutrient absorption. ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company also serves as the anus…a blind-pouch system

The radula scrapes food from environmental surfaces. This cartoon shows a longitudinal slice of a chiton with the three principal parts: foot (locomotion or attachment), visceral mass (internal organs), and mantle (secretes the valves). The radula scrapes food from environmental surfaces. dorsal aorta gonad heart valve plates pericardial cavity (coelom) hemocoel ventricle radula auricle mantle mouth anus foot digestive gland stomach nephridium nephridiopore ventral nerve cord (not shown) gonopore …a tubular digestive system

As for most molluscs, chitons use a radula to scrape their food from environmental surfaces. Below is a radula removed from a chiton mouth. Bivalve molluscs are filter feeders, however. http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/stories/Chiton_teeth_m97943.jpg

Mollusc – Feeding Photos: Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. http://www.midnightsunschool.com/Katchemak_Bay/graphics/radula.jpg http://www.midnightsunschool.com/Katchemak_Bay/graphics/Radula_dia.png

Earthworms also have a tubular digestive system ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

Earthworms also have a tubular digestive system waste elimination subunit uptake ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company enzymatic digestion intake muscular grinding

molting animals: shed their exoskeleton to grow Ecdysozoa Phylogeny molting animals: shed their exoskeleton to grow http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Cicada_molting_animated-2.gif Not a tetrachotomy! The parsimonious dichotomies are still unknown What does this mean?

Chitin LM or SEM? Hard exoskeleton Fungi, Nematodes, Tardigrades Arthropods, insects and crustaceans Malpighian tubules Cyclomorphosis http://www.impactlab.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/tardigradasm.jpg LM or SEM? O CH2OH OH H NH O=C CH3 ß 1-4 glycosidic bond like cellulose, but includes a nitrogen atom. Difficult to digest. Chitinase/cellulase only produced in certain organisms. N-acetyl glucosamine O CH2OH OH H NH O=C CH3 http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_Ne3bhx2j74s/SfBVhHkImmI/AAAAAAAAAQI/ft8QPJAteec/s1600-h/tardigradeIMGP8105.jpg

Nematode Tubular Digestive System http://www.ua.es/dpto/dcarn/fitopatologia/Images/Celegans1.jpg Nematode Tubular Digestive System Stylet Esophagus http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/nematode/nem_fig1.jpg Digestive glands Anus Intestine http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/ecdysozoa/nematodexssm.gif

Nematode Diseases of Humans Thread Worm Whipworm Pinworm Trichinosis Hookworm Filarial worms (elephantiasis, filariasis)

Spinnerets extrude silk fibers organized to capture prey to be food. Spider Anatomy: Not that different from a mollusc in many ways… but are not in Phylum Mollusca…They are Phylum Arthropoda but not Class Insecta. Fang injects venom with digestive enzymes into prey The chelicera support tube as stomach sucks in liquified prey tissues Food passes through intestines for complete digestion/absorption Waste eliminated from anus Spinnerets extrude silk fibers organized to capture prey to be food. octopod Sub-Phylum: Chelicerata Class: Arachnida http://www.rochedalss.eq.edu.au/spider/spideran.gif

Insecta: the largest class of Arthropods Out-numbers all other animals combined! Found in just about every environment…except marine! Entomology: the study of insects Evolved in Devonian period 400 MYBP http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/33-33-InsectAnatomy-L.gif smelling food seeing food hexapod

A look inside the digestive system: Mandibles chop food sideways Stomach holds food, grinds food Digestive gland injects enzymes Intestine absorbs subunits Rectum dehydrates wastes Anus ejects fecal pellet http://www.life.umd.edu/entm/shultzlab/snodgrass/Lecture1/Figure1-8.gif http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/33-33-InsectAnatomy-L.gif Digestive Gland Rectum Stomach Intestine (hindgut)

Digestive gland hepatopancreas Anus http://www.scuba-instr.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderpictures/JKPhotoGlry/Lobster-SideView.jpg Brain: Sensing Food Cardiac stomach Pyloric stomach Heart Intestine Digestive gland hepatopancreas Anus http://www.osl.gc.ca/homard/en/espece.html http://www.letsgodigital.org/html/review/underwaterphotography/panasoniclumixtz3/photography/lobster.jpg decapod

jointed mouthparts for grasping, tearing food http://library.thinkquest.org/26153/marine/sketch/729c.jpg Photo credit: Mike please provide original source of this image…is this a maxilliped? Cycliophoran attached to lobster mouthparts. May be several species on a single animal. Discovery 1995! http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/McGrawHill/Encyclopedia/images/CE757536FG0010.gif

She has a diverticulum to hold the blood meal for later use. http://www.cynical-c.com/archives/bloggraphics/aedes.jpg She has a diverticulum to hold the blood meal for later use. She lives for 4-5 days on this one blood meal. The blood protein is used for laying a “raft” of eggs in water. This female mosquito has sensory organs to locate the victim animal (thermal, CO2) and it’s blood vessels (octenol). She also has a stylet to pierce into an animal’s circulation system. ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company piercing stylet

Most birds have a crop for holding food to feed offspring. The gizzard assists in mechanical grinding of food. The intestine does: enzymatic digestion subunit uptake esophagus intestine stomach gizzard crop rectum cloaca http://i.pbase.com/u49/wangi/upload/40767363.P1150275small.jpg The rectum holds and partially dehydrates waste The cloaca is a single passage area for: digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems

Blue whales and other baleen whales are filter feeders You can see the baleen (teeth) of this whale that filter out krill ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

In most vertebrates, digestion begins with mastication using teeth Human Molar l.s. connective tissue bone ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Infection of the gums (periodontitis) is associated with endocarditis! In humans, tools (knives, blender, cooking pots) are used to initiate food preparation externally!

Human dentition indicates we are omnivores! Dentition may include cutting, tearing, and grinding teeth cutting tearing grinding ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Juvenile teeth may be replaced by adult teeth Human dentition indicates we are omnivores!

Among vertebrates the dentition has functional significance: grasping and angled back for swallowing prey whole snake deer muscular lips tear off leaves, molars grind them beaver ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Huge indeterminate incisors slash into young tree trunks, molars grind plant material dog large canine teeth and pointed molars (more like canines), designed for tearing animal flesh…minimal grinding of tissue

The human digestive system: Not shown: ventilation system connects at glottis in throat (pharynx) amylase peristalsis ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

The movement of food in the digestive tube is by peristalsis ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

The human digestive system: amylase acidic portion ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company pepsin, HCl trypsin, amylase, H2CO3 (alk), lipase bile (emulsifier) alkaline portion water reabsorption bacterial culture subunit absorption waste holding, elimination unknown 40

circular muscles for peristalsis An intestinal cross section reveals the increased surface area: circular muscles for peristalsis ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

To increase the surface area of the absorptive regions of the intestine, the lining is corrugated and lined with villi villi ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company

The villi of the intestine have good blood supply for nutrient uptake sugars, amino acids, nucleotides ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Notice how the villus is coated with microvilli…for more area!

microvilli villus Here you can see the microvilli from a single villus ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company villus

The adult (frog) has a shorter digestive system… …than the larva (tadpole) ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Can you speculate why this might have evolved? What evidence would you gather to test your hypothesis?

Why did the Franklin Mushroom Farm move to PA? Equus caballus Horses cannot digest much of their food. Microbes are only in the caecum. Horse manure makes good compost and food for fungi. Why did the Franklin Mushroom Farm move to PA? Equus caballus http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Frisian_horse.jpg/800px-Frisian_horse.jpg

Oryctolagus cuniculus Because their microbes are in their caecum too, rabbits pass material through their digestive system twice. Recent meals pass as cecotropes, which the rabbit eats to re-digest the materials that the microbes liberate. As cecotropes pass through the second time, they are dehydrated as the familiar rabbit pellets. Oryctolagus cuniculus http://www.dcn.davis.ca.us/go/pmartin/photos/vodka.jpg

Then the mixture passes to the rest of the digestive system. Ruminant animals use bacteria and archaeons to assist digestion but early in the pathway… In ruminants, the microbe culture is mixed with masticated food in the rumen. The mixture is masticated repeatedly (chewing the cud) from this rumen to assist fermentation… especially hydrolysis of cellulose. Then the mixture passes to the rest of the digestive system. Bos taurus ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company fresh food bolus enters to rechew fermented cud fresh food mixed with microbes including methanogens finish stomach digestion fermentation breaks down cellulose

It can represent 20% of the bird’s total weight! The herbivorous tropical bird, the hoatzin, uses a muscular crop for its fermentation vat. It can represent 20% of the bird’s total weight! It is a poor flier. Its young falling, into swamps below, crawl back up into the nest using claws on the wings (like dinosaurs). ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Opisthocomus hoazin

Digestion of polysaccharides -1,4 glycosidic bond Starch amylase amylase amylase glu Maltose Glucose maltase maltase Glucose These monosaccharides are ready for absorption from the digestive system.

Protein digestion in mammals: Proteins are polymers of some 22 different amino acids Enzymes cleave the peptide bond during… Protein digestion in mammals: Stomach pepsin recognize phenolic AA, cleave amino side amino end His Glu Tyr Thr Lys His Glu Ser Arg Asp Trp Thr Phe carboxyl end recognize phenolic AA, cleave carboxyl side Pancreas chymotrypsin trypsin recognize basic AA, cleave carboxyl side His Glu Tyr Thr Lys Ser Arg Asp Trp Phe cleave AA from amino end cleave AA from carboxyl end terminal AA removers aminopeptidase carboxypeptidase His Glu Tyr Thr Lys Ser Arg Asp Trp Phe dipeptide splitter recognize dipeptide, cleave peptide bond dipeptidase His Glu Tyr Thr Lys Ser Arg Asp Trp Phe His Glu Tyr Thr Lys Ser Arg Asp Trp Phe Individual Amino Acids For Absorption in Small Intestine

Chymotrypsinogen conversion into chymotrypsin How do you make digestive enzymes without digesting yourself? Chymotrypsinogen conversion into chymotrypsin Chymotrypsinogen from pancreas is inactive ©1996 Norton Presentation Maker, W. W. Norton & Company Finished chymotrypsin with active site recognizing Tyr, Trp and Phe Activation by acidic pepsin cleavage

pancreatic chymotrypsin Summary of macromolecule digestion into subunits Polysaccharides starch (amylose) Disaccharides maltose sucrose lactose Monosaccharides gluose frucose galactose salivary amylase pancreatic amylase intestinal maltase sucrase lactase Proteins Peptides Amino Acids Endopeptidases: stomach pepsin pancreatic trypsin pancreatic chymotrypsin Exopeptidases: pancreatic intestinal monoglycerides pancreatic lipase Emulsified fats Fats (triglycerides) fatty acids liver bile glycerol direct absorption

Having mutation in adult shutdown of lactase production lactose glucose + galactose In normal human genotypes, adult lactase production is shut down. Fermentation of milk-based food only occurs by bacteria in the large intestine. This results in cramps, gas, and diarrhea! Lactose intolerance. Having mutation in adult shutdown of lactase production >75% Dutch, Swedes, Danes, Swiss, US Whites, Germans, Slavs, Northern French, Northern Italians, Tutsi, Fulani (milk traditionally in adult diet) <60% Indian, Southern Italians, Saami, US Hispanics, Balkans, Mexicans, Maasai, Southern French, Greeks, South Americans, African Americans, Lebanese <20% Central Asians, Eskimo, Australian Aborigines, Bantu, Chinese, Southeast Asians, Native Americans (no milk in traditional adult diet)