Performance-Enhancing Substances 11.1

Performance can be enhanced by the use of nutritional supplements, pharmacological aids and physiological aids. Nutritional supplements include vitamins, mineral, protein/amino acid supplements, creatine, caffeine etc. Pharmacological aids include pain-killers, steroids, prohormones & certain hormones and erythropoietin. Physiological aids include blood doping and drug masking.

Vitamins and Minerals Not well regulated and may commonly have no effect on performance beyond placebo. In general, a healthy diet will supply all the vitamin and minerals a person needs. Moreover, vitamin and mineral supplements are typically in doses much higher (~1000x) than those recommended and may cause harm. Certain amino acids may lead to increased muscle development; however, as discussed previously, an excess of amino acids or proteins can lead to increased urea and ammonia production and kidney damage.

Protein and amino acid supplements Carnitine is marketed as a fat burner –improves anaerobic respiration (escorts long chain fatty acids to the mitochondria for use in the Kreb’s cycle) Creatine is marketed as an aid to muscle development. –In small quantities its ingestion may aid in performance for short, high energy activities that rely on the ATP-PC chain; –large quantities are excreted. –Adverse side effects are not well documented, –Linked to body odour and testicular shrinkage.

Caffeine well known performance aid found naturally in coffee, tea and chocolate. In low to moderate doses, caffeine will increase blood pressure, alertness and decrease fatigue. Routine ingestion will raise the body’s tolerance to its effects (body will actually depress blood pressure before routine caffeine consumption) leading to the perception of addiction.

Parmocological Aids “doping” Pain-masking drugs Anabolic steroids Prohormones Human growth hormone (hGH) erythropoietin

Pain-masking drugs Many pharmacological aids are banned by major sporting bodies as they may give athletes an unfair advantage. Pain-killers called narcotic analgesics can mask the pain of injuries by blocking the body’s pain receptors. –Include morphine & heroine. Habit-forming and can lead to more injuries when the normal signals of damage are ignored.

Anabolic steroids Based on testosterone (mimic) Used by athletes to increase muscle mass and quicker recovery Side effects include liver damage, aggression, breasts in males and the masculinisation of females.

Prohormones Androgenic steroids (Androstenedione) Mark McGwire broke the homerun record while using “Andro” in 1998 Can become or simulate testosterone or androgen. Marketed as being similar to that of anabolic steroids, while side effects include acne, baldness, feminization of males and aggression.

Human growth hormone (hGH) Believed to aid in increasing muscle mass and bone strength while maintaining body mass Can lead to heart problems, excessive growth of the extremities and organs. More difficult to detect than steroids due to natural levels in body

Barry Bonds and Acromegaly

Erythropoietin (EPO) “Blood doping” replaced real blood doping Used to increase haemoglobin levels and therefore the blood’s ability to carry and deliver oxygen. Useful for endurance athletes, especially since it is very difficult to detect. Can lead to blood clots and cyclists have died from using EPO Other restricted pharmacological substances include alcohol, marijuana, local anaesthetics, corticosteroids and beta blockers.

Physiological aids fall into two classes: blood doping and drug masking. Blood doping involves the removal and storage of blood 6-8 weeks pre-competition, then reintroducing it within the week before competition. EPO has replaced this practice Drug masking is the use of legal drugs or substances to mask illicit or restricted substances. include diuretics, which increase the volume and frequency of urination in order to decrease the concentration of drugs detected in urine testing.