Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 6 Learning This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-131-73180-7 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain? Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Classical Conditioning This is passive learning (automatic…learner does NOT have to think). First thing you need is a unconditional relationship. Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)- something that elicits a natural, reflexive response. Unconditional Response (UCR)- response to the UCS.

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Classical Conditioning Prior to conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) (Orientation to sound but no response) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth) Unconditioned response (salivation) Conditioning Neutral stimulus CS (tone) Conditioned response (salivation) + Unconditioned stimulus (food powder) After conditioning Conditioned stimulus (tone) Conditioned response (salivation) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong) (Time) Trials (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (2) Extinction (CS alone) (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Rest period Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Classical Conditioning and Humans John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment. This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Challenge to Pavlov Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning? What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its evolutionary history Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!! Operant Conditioning The Learner is NOT passive. Learning based on consequence!!!

The Law of Effect Edward Thorndike Locked cats in a cage Behavior changes because of its consequences. Rewards strengthen behavior. If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken. Called the whole process instrumental learning. Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

B.F. Skinner The Mac Daddy of Operant Conditioning. Nurture guy through and through. Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts.

The Power of Reinforcement Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Power of Reinforcement Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses Variable Ratio (VR) e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) e.g. slot machine pay-offs Variable Interval (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks Variable Interval (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise Variable Interval (VI) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Problem of Punishment Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Response Consequence Negative Reinforcement Loud Noise Press Lever Loud Noise Removed Punishment No Noise Press Lever Loud Noise Applied Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Problem of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Four Kinds of Consequences Positive or appetitive STIMULUS Negative or aversive + Present Positive Reinforcement Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Punishment Spanking leads to less talking back from children - Remove Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Omission Training Paying a speeding ticket leads to less speeding Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 3

The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Alternatives to Punishment Extinction Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle Prompting and shaping Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Insight Learning Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees. Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience. Click pic to see insight learning.

Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Observational Learning Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll We learn through modeling behavior from others. Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory

Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 6 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007