Napoleon Bonaparte Enlightened Despot

The Corsican Noble Born into a minor noble family on the island of Corsica, Napoleon Bonaparte became a key figure of the French Revolutionary period. Napoleon attended the French military academy graduating as an artillery officer, rising to prominence during the National Convention.

Early Conquests and Adventures Napoleon gained fame during the Directory by firing on a mob of royalist supporters dispersing the crowd with a “whiff of grapeshot.” Amid his growing popularity Napoleon was sent to Italy to lead French forces against the Austrians.

Italy 1796-1797 Napoleon took command of a disorganized French Army and using vision and will transformed it into an efficient fighting force defeating Austrian armies nearly twice it size. His personal heroics led to a change in French fortunes and the Austrians were soon driven out of northern Italy and forced to sign a peace treaty with the French.

The Egyptian Expedition In 1798 Napoleon led a French expedition to Egypt to disrupt British trade in the eastern Mediterranean. The French overwhelmed the Ottoman defenders, at the Battle of the Pyramids gaining control of Egypt, however, the British defeated Napoleon’s fleet.

Egyptian discoveries The French expedition did discover the Rosetta Stone leading to the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphics. While in Egypt Napoleon also led an expedition to search for the tomb of Alexander the Great. In 1799, Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to France following French defeats by the Austrians, Russians and British.

The Consulate 1799-1804 Upon returning to France Napoleon and two co-conspirators overthrew the Directory in a coup d’etat. The new government was called the Consulate and Napoleon became the First Consul.

Further Military Victories Napoleon defeated the Austrians in northern Italy again in 1801. In 1802 he signed a brief peace agreement with Britain, but war returned in 1803 Napoleon was also elected Consul for Life in a plebiscite. Based on his military successes Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804.

Napoleon’s Domestic Reforms Napoleon moved quickly to reinstate a system of absolute monarchy; removing people’s right to elect local officials; and assigning all legislative powers to the central government. Napoleon established a system of public education including Lycées, or high schools and technical schools to provide the educated leadership he desired for the French Empire

The Napoleonic Code The Napoleonic Code made all men equal before the law. Women, however, were treated as second class citizens. Napoleon’s legal reforms included freedom of religion. However, freedom of speech and the press was restricted. Criminals were entitled to a public trial by jury and individuals were free from arbitrary arrest. However, Napoleon did establish a secret police to spy on the people of France.

Public Works Napoleon began the construction of a system of public works to improve the transportation infrastructure of France including the digging of canals and the construction of roads and bridges. Napoleon named Jacques Louis David his court painter. David’s style called Neo-classical followed that of ancient Greece and Rome. As a symbol of his successes Napoleon began construction of the Arch de Triumph Because of his policies France paid off its debts and the economy grew rapidly.

The Napoleonic Army Napoleon believed in the idea merit and so chose his officers based on ability not on social class. Napoleon organized his army on a corps system. Each corps was its own mini-army containing cavalry, infantry and artillery. This organization made his army more flexible than that of his opponents.

The Heights of Success Following a further defeat of the Austrians in 1805 Napoleon crowned himself King of Italy. In 1806, Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine to protect gains in the German states at the expense of Austria and Prussia. Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal in 1808. In 1809 Pope Pius VII excommunicated Napoleon, who then conquered the Papal States and imprisoned the Pope.

Britain Napoleon’s most consistent enemy was Great Britain which he called “a nation of shopkeepers.” The British control of the seas meant that Napoleon was never in a position to invade Britain. Instead he organized a blockade of British trade called the Continental System. The Continental System was meant to bankrupt Britain leading to peace. However, the economic concerns of his allies led to a steady decrease in support for Napoleon.

The Invasion of Russia 1812 Napoleon assembled 600,000 men the largest army, to that time, to invade Russia in 1812. The Russians retreated ahead of the advancing French destroying useful resources in a scorched earth policy. The French finally defeated the Russians outside of Moscow at the battle of Borodino, but the Russians set fire to the city refusing Napoleon’s peace offerings.

Retreat from Moscow

The Road to Abdication Napoleon gathered another French Army that was defeated by the Russians, Austrians and Prussians at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. In 1814 Napoleon’s enemies captured Paris and Napoleon was forced to abdicate his throne and was exiled to the Mediterranean Island of Elba.

The Hundreds Days Following demonstrations against the returned Bourbon King Louis XVIII. Napoleon escaped his exile and returned to France. He rallied the French army to his cause and Louis XVIII fled into exile. Napoleon proclaimed his desire for peace as his enemies gathered fresh armies to defeat him.

The Battle of Waterloo In 1815 British forces led by the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo. Napoleon’s defeat was only secured with the timely arrival of a Prussian army led by General Blucher.

Defeat and Exile Following Waterloo Napoleon abdicated once again and this time he was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic off the coast of Africa. Napoleon had come closer than anyone before or since to ruling all of Europe.