Chris Jarvis 1 Leadership There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things. Machiavelli 1513

Chris Jarvis 2 Leadership  ‘romance’ of leadership debated in organisational theory  'Any evidence for a systematic relationship between leadership styles & organisational performance?’  Subtexts (p87)  A means of generating ‘stories’ about how kinds of power & influence can be exerted  role of leadership in organisations related to  control over meanings & interpretations of important groups  its effectiveness is as a political tool  Meindl et al 1985, cited in Jaffee, 2001

Chris Jarvis 3 A source of ‘political control and influence’  An more negative argument within organisational sociological tradition  how leadership can influence how a situation is defined  challenges managerial psychology views i.e leadership as an element of group and organisational functioning ( ‘managerialist legitimation’?)

Chris Jarvis 4 Leadership: Conceptual and practical dilemmas  best understood in ‘high profile’, public figure sense  we don’t like the bad ones (Hitler, Maxwell)  often associated with male attributes, which may limit its definitions and thus what happens in reality  may create problems for women put into leadership roles  we feel its absence (leaderless, directionless)

Chris Jarvis 5 Psychological view of ‘what is a leader’ - Kelly, 1991  We may nominate leaders’ differently, depending upon understanding of what the situation demands (originality; defence of group; devotion to duty, etc.) and the role we expect to be played  Leader  one who performs a variety of jobs popularly recognised as "leadership" jobs (socially constructed)  needs to understand his/her role in group social processes  Dynamic, socio-psychological interplay between followers & leadership

Chris Jarvis 6 Authority and Leadership  Max Weber effective exercise of authority requires the authority figure to possess legitimacy, thru. charisma, reputation, lineage or exceptional credentials.  Katz & Kahn (1966) occupying a formal position of authority is not enough – must possess qualities to motivate & energise others.  Henry Mintzberg (1973) All managers adopt a leader role as one of their roles - to integrate individual goals/needs & organisational goals/needs.

Chris Jarvis 7 Four approaches to leadership  Trait theories Brynman 1996 reviewed literature to elicit essential e.g. physique, height, intelligence, sociability, assertiveness - no commonality.  Leadership functions and styles Tannenbaum et al 1961, Likert 1961; Adair, 1965 e.g. task leaders vs. social leaders; participative or exploitative  Contingency or situational leadership concerned with relationships between traits/styles & the situation or context (Feidler 1967; Hersey, Blanchard & Johnson, 1998)  "New Leadership"..... Transformational create organisational culture that motivates & stimulates continuous learning, quality & self initiative - Burns 1975 and Bass 1985

Chris Jarvis 8 Bennis (1989) Managers (transactional)  administer, copy, maintain  focus on systems & structure  rely on control  short-range view - bottom line  ask how & when  accept the status quo  classic good soldier  do things right Leaders (transformational)  innovation & originality  develop  focus on people & inspire trust  long-range view - the horizon  ask what & why  challenge the status quo  are their own person  do the right things 'the liberation of talent rather than restraint by rule’ Leaders aim at 'winning hearts and minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use of 'resources'. (Peters & Austin, 1985).

Chris Jarvis 9 Maintaining or losing leadership  Followers have expectations  task competence (Fincham & Rhodes 1999)  socio-emotional competence especially re-group  Gap may exist between actual & perceived competence – influences willingness of followers to comply - Price & Garland, 1981  Idiosyncratic credit – permission to deviate from group norms - maintaining credit is crucial to surviving in leadership position Hollander, 1958  Common-sense + research link between mgr-leader behaviour & subordinate performance  belief that business success has much to do with 'leadership'.

Chris Jarvis 10 Classical management functions Fayol  plan, organise, direct, control resources to achieve objectives.  Generate & follow  policies, rules & procedures (admin. > mgt?)  seek order & control.  handle & direct resources:  money, materials, equip't, space, facilities,  information & technology  use of time  people  Have 'subordinates' and communicate  enable others to understand information, instructions or ideas  Telling people what to do & how to do it > vision & giving a sense of direction?

Chris Jarvis 11 Management development & leadership .Can leadership skills really be developed?  Drake's Drum?  "The Playing Fields of Eton"  team games e.g. rugby, hockey?  simulated field experience (outward bound)?  assessment centre (workshop selection & devel)?  coaching & mentoring  going on a leadership course?  meditation?  reading a book, watching TV?

Chris Jarvis 12 Academic & practitioner recipes  a mix of traditional & behavioural science approaches  few studies offer much to the practical manager (Adair)  academic doubts. Textbooks tend to  report 'theories' few query the validity of each approach  the prescriptions/recommendations  an industry selling  Elixirs, recipes, 'leadership development' packages: interpersonal skills, motivating, listening, participative problem solving, assertiveness & transforming skills

Chris Jarvis 13 Unitary (vs. pluralistic) frame of reference  One set of values, beliefs, commitments  Shared understanding & commitment to objectives  One source of leadership  Team members - All pulling in the same direction  Potential for harmony is assumed if leader communicates well  Disagreements  the result of misunderstanding  Dissidents & "rabble" hypothesis Alan Fox – Research Paper to Donovan Commission 1968

Chris Jarvis 14 How do different 'styles' affect an organisation?  wide ranging & open to question  difficult to research - what are the variables?  difficult to  separate fact from fiction  attribute cause & effect in different contexts & organisational settings over time  ambiguity of measures of organisational performance  gap between perception of practitioners & behavioural scientists

Chris Jarvis 15 Leadership traits approach  Bird 1940, Brynman 1996 identified traits from 'the literature'. Few common to all studies  everyday wisdom on common traits  many descriptors & many heroes and villains - difficult to agree on one trait list  when leaders behave towards followers in different ways, how much is cause, how much is effect?  do some 'qualities' indicate potential differentiating the 'effective from the ineffective'?  but non-leaders often possess the same traits as leaders Conclusion?  Consider followers & situation that L. occurs in.

Chris Jarvis 16 Style approaches Mayo & Hawthorne experiments ( Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939)  'permissive', sensitive leadership behaviour  more output  Relay Assembly room - increased output influenced by 'permissive' management of researchers  Bank Wiring room - links management style, employee attitudes and behaviour Kurt Lewin (1939) - adult leaders in boys' hobby club  autocratic, laissez faire, democratic leader styles & the behaviour/performance of youth groups  language & model linking "styles"  subordinate performance  Democratic style reflects dominant social values  Impetus for further study - Michigan & Ohio State

Chris Jarvis 17 Ohio State studies (two factor theories) two (independent) L - dimensions  initiating structure (task centred)  consideration (interpersonal relationships) "measure" perception & style preferences in various settings  inventories & development prescriptions. Effectiveness reflects task completion member satisfaction Flieshman 1953 Stogdill (1948, 1956) Supervisors High task - productive but high turnover, lower morale High consideration - high morale, low productivity Over-generalised conclusions Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration. Participative styles preferred Supervisors High task - productive but high turnover, lower morale High consideration - high morale, low productivity Over-generalised conclusions Ideal L = high on initiation + consideration. Participative styles preferred

Chris Jarvis 18 Critique of Ohio Studies  output measures can often be favourably affected in the short term by authoritarian leadership.  The problems of social research  Hawthorne effect  Abstracted empiricism  likelihood that change in performance stems from more than one variable

Chris Jarvis 19 Michigan Studies  programmes for changing style & org. culture  'proprietary' approaches to assessment & training (treatment)  Blake - Moulton Managerial Grid (1968)  Extended with contingency focus  Tannenbaum (1958)  Reddin (1970)  Hersey & Blanchard (1977) the ideal one-best style Concern for production High Low Concern for people High Low 5.5. Managerial Grid

Chris Jarvis 20 Critique of style theories  Universality of the style?  weak evidence for usefulness of 'style' theories  Style changes often assoc. with changes in org. structure + other mgt competencies.  Fiedler (1967) - Are participative, considerate styles really better than trad. authoritarian/directive?  Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of behaviour change from directive to participative

Chris Jarvis 21 Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum TellsSellsConsults JoinsAbdicates Suggests Delegates Boss-centredFollower-centred decision making & action freedom for followers use of authority by leader Position on continuum based on situational factors: value system, wants, confidence, willingness.

Chris Jarvis 22 Adair: Action-centred leadership Task functions Group maintenance Individual needs Simple model – useful for junior mgt training functional & situational emphasis on task situation + socio- emotional needs Aware of group processes, people in group, nuances of behaviour, interpersonal skills

Chris Jarvis 23 Critique of Group Dynamics approach If leadership behaviour is situationally & group related what happens when the situation or group changes? Does the organisation function sub-optimally? ignores wider organisational demands on leader & group. Yet we see how leaders may relate to followers & situations

Chris Jarvis 24 Situational L. (Hersey & Blanchard 1977 & 82)  contingency approach  follower maturity a critical situational variable  two dimensions  task style  relationship style  Four styles  telling, selling, participating, delegating.  follower maturity  degree of achievement motivation  willingness to take on responsibility  education or experience  Theoretically weak  no proper rationale for the hypothesised relationships  Maturity - an over-simplified factor - lacks empirical support (Yukl, 1981; Graeff, 1983; Blank et al, 1990).

Chris Jarvis 25 Reddin 3-D (style-contingency approach) RelatedIntegrated Separated Dedicated Developer Manager executive Bureaucrat Benevolent autocrat Missionary Compromiser Deserter Autocrat Effectiveness High Low Task HighLow Relationships Low High  Too many labels

Chris Jarvis 26 Problems with contingency theories?  what causes what - in real life?  like style theories, difficult to understand why a favourable view of the leader in some groups.  'permissive' leadership: the consequence > the cause of group effectiveness  social learning - leader & subordinates/followers  have negotiable, interactive relationship  learn to modify or influence each other's behaviour by giving or holding back desired rewards

Chris Jarvis 27 The search for the Grail ?  exercising effective-L is more & more difficult  economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc.  political change South Africa, CIS, Italy, Japan + Europe  big transnational firms  less goodwill & traditional deference towards leaders  Many skills & techniques of today's senior execs are being superseded. Which ones?  Competition & changing markets, products, technologies & expectations dictate adaptability and innovation in strategic decision making, marketing, organisation - & leadership

Chris Jarvis 28 Transformational leadership theory Context? late-20 th C national & global pol-econ. change Contributors: Downton (1973), Burns (1978), Bass (1985), Bennis & Nanus (1985), Tichy & Devanna (1986) Bass surveyed 70 execs "In your careers, who transformed you in Burns' terms (raised awareness, move up Maslow hierarchy …. to transcend self-interest etc). Answer: usually an organisational superior. fresh thinking? Romanticism? creates conditions for followers to want to achieve results & fulfil selves. bridges small group studies & leadership by ’movers & shakers’ who transform organisations

Chris Jarvis 29 From Laissez faire to Transactional  Laissez-faire  not really leaders at all, avoid intervention, weak follow up, passivity, potential for confusion  Transactional leaders  management by exception  passive: set standards/objectives, wait for, react to, reluctant intervention. Status quo  active: standards/objectives, monitor, correct, look for error, enforce rules/procedures. Low initiative & risk-taking  constructive transactions, contingent rewards  agree standards/objectives, feedback, PR rewards  outcome: performance that meets expectations.  simplified in One-Min. Manager (Blanchard & Johnson 1982). Airport business books

Chris Jarvis 30 Transactional leadership  Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even necessary. Contingent rewards underpin PRP - do they?  Laissez-faire & transactional in directive, consultative, participative & delegative styles  directive + Mgt by Exception 'These are the rules and this is how you've broken them'.  participative + Mgt by Exception Let's work together to identify mistakes' Weaknesses  Carrot/stick rewards, emphasis on plans, targets, systems, controls  management > leadership  fails to develop, motivate, bring to full potential (Bass)

Chris Jarvis 31 The transformational leader (Bass’s four 'I's) promotes  follower desire for achievement & self-development.  teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy, belief, value Four 'I's.  lndividualised consideration (IC)  Intellectual stimulation (IS)  Inspirational motivation (IM)  ldealised influence (charisma) (II)

Chris Jarvis 32 Individualised consideration & Intellectual stimulation IC  identifying individuals' needs & abilities, opps. to learn, delegating, coaching & giving developmental feedback. Spend time with individuals e.g. mentoring. IS  question status quo, encourage imagination, creativity, logical thinking & intuition.  unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation.  compare 1960s UK motorcycles & Swiss watch market to Yamaha and Seiko

Chris Jarvis 33 Inspirational motivation & ldealised influence IM  Clear vision, problems as opportunities, language & symbols  I had a dream …...  Ask not what America can do for you. Ask what you can do..  Go the extra mile. Iacocca at Chrysler. II  Confident in communicating a virtuous vision  The buck stops here'. Purpose, persistence, trust, accomplish > failure. Respected for personal ability Leadership.. the priceless gift you earn from those who work for you. I have to earn the right to that gift, and continuously re-earn (it). John Harvey-Jones (ICI)  Gandhi, Luther King, Thatcher, Blair  Hitler, Jim Jones

Chris Jarvis 34 Bass's model IS IC II IM Contingent Rewards MbEx-A MbEx-P LFaire effective passive active ineffective  Learn TL!!  Avolio-Bass training package Sales pitch - encouraging TL will  project confidence, commitment & competence  attract quality staff to mission & challenge  develop people fully to respond better to competition & change

Chris Jarvis 35 Is transformational leadership cross-cultural? ‘exporting participative management or Theory Y from the USA to authoritarian cultures is like 'preaching Jeffersonian democracy to managers who believe in the divine right of kings'. Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966 Leadership - a universal phenomenon? context & culture influences Bass presents evidence from studies in Italy, Sweden, Canada, New Zealand, India, Japan & Singapore suggests that the model needs only fine-tuning across cultures ??

Chris Jarvis 36 Motivated in spite of leader? Do we really need 'em? 1970s dissatisfaction with leadership theory & research in explaining effect on motivation & performance 'Substitutes' theory of leadership (Kerr & Jermier 1978) Are there substitutes making L-behaviour unnecessary e.g. 'Professional', competent people do not need 'leadership' to perform well & to be motivated. Depends on the individuals, the work, the organisation & its structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction, group cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of the leader

Chris Jarvis 37 Exam Question  Review alternative leadership theories and analyse their value in terms of  (a) guiding decisions in selecting managers to run modern organisations  (b) giving pointers to individuals in developing skills and abilities that, in a range of situations, may further their career aspirations.