Formation of the Modern Middle East The Middle East After 1919

The Middle East in WWI: The Ottoman Empire Ottomans fought with Germany and Austria Hungary Challenge British control of the Suez canal & their colonies Regain territory lost to Nationalist groups in the Balkans

Ottoman Empire 1915-1918 Outgunned Undermanned Industry couldn’t keep up Eventually defeated by British invasions into modern day Iraq and Russia from the north

British Wheelings And Dealings Muslims: Promise disgruntled regions full independence if they help Allied Powers in WWI. Lawrence of Arabia

Hussein-McMahon Letters, 1916 ....Britain is prepared to recognize and uphold the independence of the Arabs in all regions lying within the frontiers proposed by the Sharif of Mecca....

Wheeling and Dealing continue The Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916, officially known as the "Asia Minor Agreement", was a secret agreement between the governments of the United Kingdom and France,  with the assent of Russia, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in Western Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during World War I. It effectively divided the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire outside the Arabian peninsula into areas of future British and French control or influence. (Turkey)

Sykes-Picot secret Agreement

British Wheeling and Dealing con’t Jews- Balfour Declaration: 1917 His Majesty’s Government views with favor the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine… Sir Arthur James Balfour, Br. Foreign Sec.

Ottoman Empire-Collapse 1919-1922 Great Britain, and other Arabs eventually defeat the Ottomans Empire is dissolved by British at end of war Ottoman Empire NOT mentioned in Versailles Treaty (ending WWI) but Great Britain gets jurisdiction over former Ottoman territory. Lands are partitioned (divided) Nationalist Groups want independence (those that were friendly to England were put in charge) Turkey gains independence (former Ottoman Empie reduced to 1 independent country)

War Ends- Arab world expects deals to be honored 1917 – Bolshevik revo occurs, they (Russia) leak the Sykes-Picot agreement, Arab mistrust begins King Faisal of Syria Elected by congress

Treaty of Versailles Allied Powers “Win” Central Powers (Germany, Ottoman Empire, Italy) lose colonies, see territories broken up League of Nations Mandate System UK, France administer regions until they’re “Ready” for independence How is this different from a colony?

Oil discovered in the Middle East First discovered on Masjid-I Suleiman in Persia (Iraq) in 1908. Turkish-Petroleum Co. [TPC] founded in 1911 drill for oil in Mosul, Mesopotamia (Iraq) Britain signed a secret agreement with the sheikh of Kuwait who, while outwardly pledging allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul, promised exclusive oil rights to the British. Kuwait became a British protectorate in November, 1914. In 1927, oil was struck in Kirkuk, Iraq, and the Iraq Petroleum Co. [IPC] was created.

Allies attempt to maintain control over Turkey following WWI conquest of Ottoman Empire, but Mustafa Kemal lead successful fight for independence, establishing modern Turkey. This derails Allied plans to settle the Kurds and Assyrians inside modern Turkey borders, forcing them into Northern Iraq instead, a cause of ongoing conflict with the majority Arab population. Mustafa Kemal

Caliphate The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph ('successor')“refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim community. In theory, it is an aristocratic–constitutional republic, which means that the head of state, the Caliph, and other officials are representatives of the people and of Islam and must govern according to constitutional and religious law, or Sharia. On March 3, 1924, Mustafa Kemal , as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the parliament of the newly formed Turkish Republic. What about the rest of the Arab territories?

Arab Independence? When the Ottomans departed, the Arabs proclaimed an independent state in Damascus (Syria), but were too weak, militarily and economically, to resist the European powers for long, and Britain and France soon established control and re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.

New Middle East Syria became a French protectorate thinly disguised as a League of Nations Mandate. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become Lebanon, another French protectorate. Iraq and Palestine became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "Kingdom of Iraq" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, Faisal, was installed as the King of Iraq. Iraq incorporated large populations of Kurds and Assyrians, many of whom had been promised independent states of their own.

New Middle East Con’t Palestine became the "British Mandate of Palestine" and was split in half. The eastern half of Palestine became the "Emirate of Transjordan" to provide a throne for a politically connected family, (one Hussein's sons), Abdullah. The western half of Palestine was placed under direct British administration. The already substantial Jewish population was allowed to increase. Initially this increase was allowed under British protection. Most of the Arabian peninsula fell to another British ally, Ibn Saud. Saud created the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. (Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in 1938) The Pahlavi Family: put on the throne of Persia. (In 1935, Reza Shah Pahlavi instructed foreign embassies to call Persia by its ancient Persian name, Iran)

Persia/Iran 1925 The Pahlavis came to power after Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last ruler of the Qajar dynasty, proved unable to stop British and Soviet encroachment on Iranian sovereignty, was overthrown in a military coup, abdicated his throne and went to exile in France. The National Assembly, known as the Majlis, convening as a constituent assembly on December 12, 1925, deposed the young Ahmad Shah Qajar, and declared Reza Shah the new monarch of the Imperial State of Persia. In 1935, Reza Shah instructed foreign embassies to call Persia by its ancient Persian name, Iran.

Reforms in Iran Secularization  seizure of religious lands. Adoption of the French civil code. Built the Trans-Iranian Railroad. Improved education.

Problems with the division of the Middle East Many Nationalist groups not granted independence Boundaries are drawn indiscriminately *No attention paid to tribal lands* Result: Arabs are distrustful of European powers especially the British

English controlled side King Abdullah controlled side

Oil and the Middle East American oil companies [Texaco & Chevron], gain oil concessions in Bahrain in 1929. In 1933, American oil companies win an oil concession in Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO [Arab-American Oil Co,] is created in 1939.

Middle East during WW2 Germans wanted North African Colonies, the Suez Canal in order to gain access to Arabian oil fields. Germans offered full independence to middle east and African states if they supported Axis cause Some political and religious leaders supported Germans in order to attain independence from British, French

Middle East Post WW2 Independence is granted to many states - In 1945, at British prompting, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transjordan, and Yemen formed the Arab League to coordinate policy between the Arab states. The state of Israel is formed by a British Mandate (with support of the UN & US) in 1948. (impact of Holocaust) -large Jewish populations of Europe leave to go back to their homeland.

Settlemment On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly approved a plan to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. Each state would comprise three major sections, linked by extraterritorial crossroads; the Arab state would also have an enclave at Jaffa. The Jews would get 56% of the land, of which most was in the Negev Desert; their area would contain 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Arabs. The Palestinian Arabs would get 42% of the land, which had a population of 818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews. In consideration of its religious significance, the Jerusalem area, including Bethlehem, with 100,000 Jews and an equal number of Palestinian Arabs, was to become a Corpus separatum, to be administered by the UN.

Stop here

Arab Reaction & the Cold War US and Western powers support Israel USSR tries to influence Arab countries Several Regional conflicts break out: Arab Israel War of 1948 1967 Six day war 1968-72 War of Attrition 1981 attacked Iraq 1982 Lebanon Israel holds its independence to this day (extreme Anti-Israeli stance in many Middle East countries)

Elsewhere Iran: 1950s saw US-backed installation of a Shah 1970s: Shah forced from throne again by Fundamentalist Clerics, led by Ayatollah Khomeini

Elsewhere Iraq: 1960s Baath party takes control of Iraq Secular Government Late 1970s: Saddam Hussein takes control

Elsewhere Afghanistan: 1970s- invaded by Soviet Union US-backed muhajideen against Soviets After Soviet Collapse, establishment of Taliban Government

Elsewhere Saudi Arabia: people enjoy decent standards of living financial benefits from government Little- to no social reforms Women can’t drive Limited ability to criticize govt

RESULTS: US is last major super power left after 1991 with a great interest in the Middle East (no one else left to blame) Middle Eastern countries have been pawns of the western powers since the early 20th century. Anti-American, Anti- Western, and Anti-Israeli thought common in many countries and organizations.