© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. CHAPTER 11 Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning Goals 1. Distinguish between expert knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. 2. Explain how reading develops and discuss some useful approaches to teaching reading. 3. Describe how writing develops and discuss some useful approaches to teaching writing.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning Goals, cont’d 4. Characterize how mathematical thinking develops and identify some issues related to teaching mathematics. 5. Identify some challenges and strategies related to teaching children how to think scientifically. 6. Summarize how learning in social studies is becoming more constructivist.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Expert and Pedagogical Content Knowledge Expert knowledge means an excellent knowledge about the content of a particular discipline. Pedagogical content knowledge is knowledge about how to effectively teach a particular discipline.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas A Developmental Model of Reading Cognitive Approaches Social Constructivist Approaches Approaches to Reading Language Rule Systems

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Developmental Model of Reading Stage 1 (grades 1–2) Learn to sound out words Stage 0 Left to right progression, identification of letters of the alphabet, how to write their names Stage 2 (grades 2–3) Retrieve individual words and develop mechanical skills

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Developmental Model of Reading Stage 3 (grades 4–8) Read to learn, understand various perspectives Stage 4 (high school) Develop the ability to understand material written from different perspectives and discuss

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Language Rule Systems Phonology Sound system of a language Morphology Units of meaning involved in word formation Syntax Rules for combining words into acceptable phrases/sentences Semantics Meaning of words and sentences

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Teaching Reading Reading is the ability to understand written discourse. Whole- Language Approach Phonics Approach

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cognitive Approaches Decoding and Comprehending Words Automaticity and Metacognitive Strategies:  Overview of text  Seek and relate important ideas  Determine word meaning  Monitor comprehension  Understand relationships  Recognize the necessity to reread  Adjust pace based on difficulty of material

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cognitive Approaches Prior Knowledge A reader’s background knowledge is related to how he or she interprets and remembers reading material. Develop Expert Strategies The transactional strategy instruction approach allows students to learn strategies to monitor reading and to summarize information.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Social Constructivist Approaches Meaning is “socially negotiated” (reader’s contribution, context, and purpose) Assumptions: 1. The social context plays an important role in reading. 2. Knowledgeable readers in the culture assist less knowledgeable readers.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Social Constructivist Approaches Reciprocal Teaching 1. Generate questions about text 2. Clarify understanding of text 3. Summarize text 4. Make predictions Book Clubs School/Family/Community Connections

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Comparing Approaches to Reading Instruction Reciprocal group takes turns with the teacher. Explicit instruction group listens and completes paper-pencil activities. Modeling group observes teacher’s use of strategies. Control group was given no reading strategy information.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas Cognitive Approaches Social Constructivist Approaches Developmental Changes Writing

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Developmental Changes in Writing Age 4 In the United States, children can usually reproduce their name Age 2–3 Writing emerges out of scribbles Age 5 Reproduce letters and copy short words

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Developmental Changes in Writing Middle and High School: Students develop sophisticated methods of organizing ideas Early Elementary School: Distinguish letter characteristics, continued reversal of letters (b-d;p-q); criticism of printing skills should be minimized

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cognitive Approaches to Teaching Writing Planning Outlining and organizing content information. Problem Solving Writers establish goals that include the purpose, the audience, and the role of the writer. Revising Multiple drafts, getting feedback, detecting and correcting errors.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cognitive Approaches to Teaching Writing Metacognition: Knowledge of planning and organization and being receptive to feedback in order to become a good writer. Effective Writing Strategies:  Prewriting  Planning, revising, and editing  Summarization  Sentence combining

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching Writing  Create a social context that encourages writing.  Meaningful student-teacher conferences that promote writing about personal experiences.  Shared rich peer collaboration and family/peer connections produce new insights.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas Controversy in Math Education Developmental Changes Mathematics Some Constructivist Principles Technology and Math Instruction Cognitive Processes

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Grades 3–5 Multiplicative reasoning, equivalence, and computational fluency Pre-K–Grade 2 Count past 20, add/subtract single digits Developmental Changes in Mathematics

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Grades 6–8 Algebra and geometry, quantitative life solutions Developmental Changes in Mathematics Grades 9–12 Students should experience algebra, geometry, statistics, probability, and discrete mathematics

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Constructivist Principles for Teaching Mathematics With appropriate prior knowledge, make students stretch their minds to solve problems Make math curriculum socially interactive Make math realistic and interesting

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Crack the Case The Constructivist Math Classroom 1. What are the issues in this case? 2. The students in first and second grade seem to be flourishing in this curriculum, whereas the older students are struggling. Why might this be? Tie your answer to a constructivist principle. 3. How should the teachers address parental concerns regarding the new curriculum? 4. How should they address the concerns of the algebra teacher? 5. What can the teachers do to help their students at this point?

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas Science Science Education Constructivist Teaching Strategies

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Strategies for Teaching Science Promote scientific thinking Address misconceptions Develop inquiry skills Teach science content Allow exploration of everyday science problems

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Enter the Debate Should teachers emphasize the scientific process or scientific facts in science instruction? PROCESSFACTS

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas What Is Social Studies? Social Studies Constructivist Approaches

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Social Studies Themes (National Council for the Social Sciences, 2000) Individual Development/ Identity Social Studies People, Places, and Environments Power, Authority, Governance Production, Distribution, Consumption Science, Technology, and Society Time, Continuity, and Change Culture Civic Ideals and Practices Global Connections Individuals, Groups, and Institutions

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Reflection & Observation Reflection: How has working with others affected your learning experiences? Why?