Operating the Camera

Viewfinder/Rangefinder Cameras View through eyepiece with simple lens Parallax error: viewfinder isn’t in same position as camera lens, so view is slightly different

Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras One lens to film, the other mirrored to eye Image focused on ground glass

View Cameras Direct viewing: ground glass is exactly where the film will be Large-format Usually uses sheet film

Single-Lens Reflex Cameras View the actual image that will fall on the film Image focused on ground glass

Optical Components of an SLR Camera A cross-section of the optical components of a SLR camera shows how the light passes through the lens assembly (1), is reflected by the mirror (2) and is projected on the matte focusing screen (5). By a condensing lens (6) and internal reflections in the roof pentaprism (7) the image appears in the eyepiece (8). When an image is taken, the mirror moves upwards from its critical 45 degree angle in the direction of the arrow, the focal plane shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected onto the film or sensor (4) in exactly the same manner as on the focusing screen.

35 mm Manual Camera Two controls alter film exposure: Aperture measured in f-stops Larger f-stop = less exposure Aperture control ring set at f/8

35 mm Manual Camera Two controls alter film exposure: Shutter speed Measured in seconds Faster speed = less exposure Shutter speed dial set for 1/125 second

Leaf Shutters Lightweight and quiet Synchronize with flash Difficult to achieve fast shutter speeds

Focal Plane Shutters Heavier & noisier Convenient with TTL systems Faster shutter speeds

Locating Camera Parts Teacher should demonstrate on a real camera!

Locating Camera Parts

A Procedure for Taking Photographs Load the film into the camera Develop ideas for photographs Frame and compose your photograph Evaluate the light on your subject Focus the camera Expose the film Rewind the film and remove it from the camera Process and print the exposed film

Load the film into the camera Open the back Insert film—don’t expose it to light! Insert film leader in spindle Advance film until it’s securely wrapped Close and latch camera back

Frame and Compose Look through viewfinder Move your subject as needed Make sure back- ground doesn’t distract Remember you can turn camera on end

Film Light-Sensitive Materials Photosensitive = light-sensitive Silver salts (silver halide crystals) turn dark when exposed to light Small amount of light on silver salts produces latent image Developing process increases density of latent image

Light-Sensitive Materials Since light turns silver salts dark, the result is a negative image Printing reverses the process to show a positive image Support of the silver salt is the base: transparent for film, paper for prints

Structure of Black-and-White Films Simple silver salts give a monochrome (b/w) image Silver salts combined with gelatin form an emulsion that adheres to base Sensitivity dyes in the emulsion increase the film’s response to some colors Choose films with the same emulsion batch number if you need consistency from roll to roll

Structure of Black-and-White Films 1 Scratch-resistant coating 2 Emulsion 3 Adhesive 4 Base 5 Adhesive 6 Antihalation backing

Selecting 35mm Film and Film Speed Sensitivity to Light Film sensitivity (speed) determined by amount of exposure required to produce a given density More sensitive (faster) films require less exposure Higher exposure index means more sensitive (faster) film Exposure index Slow ISO 50/18º or lower Medium ISO 100/21º Fast ISO 200/24º to ISO 400/27º Ultrafast Higher than ISO 400/27º

Selecting 35mm Film and Film Speed In general, faster films are needed when shooting in low-level light, and slower films can be used only when light levels are relatively high. After loading the film in camera, you will need to shoot 2 or 3 waste exposures to move exposed film out of the way and position unexposed film behind the shutter.

Adjusting the Exposure Correct exposure – getting the right amount of light to the film Overexposure- too much light Underexposure- too little light Both will result in a poor negative- and therefore you won’t be able to make a good print.

Aperture Controls the intensity of the light passing through the lens A large aperture lets thru a lot of light, while a small aperture allows little light to pass through. f/2 f/2.8 f/4 f/5.6 f/8 f/11 f/16

Aperture Cont… The size of the aperture, also called the lens opening, is designated by the f-stop. Are usually on the lens barrel – in a rather odd series of numbers like this... 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22 -Larger f-stop numbers indicate smaller lens openings, the smaller numbers represent larger openings.

Aperture Cont… When you change the lens opening from f-stop to the next, you are adjusting the aperture “one-stop”. Each change either doubles the intensity of light or cuts it in half. When you go down to the next smaller aperture you are “stopping down” one stop and letting in half as much light. f/2 f/2.8 f/4 f/5.6 f/8 f/11 f/16

Shutter Speed Controls the length of exposure (length of time the shutter remains open). Opening the shutter allows light to strike the film until the shutter closes again. Shutter speeds appear in a series like this… B, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500 (Quick way of noting fractions of a second) Larger number rep. smaller fractions or shorter exposure times.

Shutter Speed and F-Stop Combinations Equivalent exposure settings Different shutter speed and f-stop combinations produce the same exposure f/8 at 1/60 second yields same exposure as f/5.6 at 1/125 second Reciprocity law Effect of exposure—density—is the same regardless of the rate at which the exposure is given (see pg. 33 in text)

Effects of Film Exposure Changes Optimum exposure = least exposure that retains detail in shadow areas 4 stops underexposed Optimal exposure 4 stops overexposed

Recording Motion Shutter speed affects the way cameras record motion. Using slow shutter speed to record a moving subject, there is time during the exposure for the subject to trace its image on the film (you create a blur)

Recording Motion A faster shutter speed, on the other hand, tends to freeze a moving subject. By selecting the shutter speed, you can control how much or how little blur a moving subject creates.

Camera Movement Faster shutter speeds decrease the effects of camera movement. If you hand-hold the camera and want sharp results, you should not use a shutter speed any slower than the focal length of the lens you are using. (For a normal 50mm lens, you should stick to a shutter speed of of 1/50 or 1/60 or faster.

Shutter Speed and Special Effects Panning – involves moving the camera with the subject so that the subject maintains the same position in the viewfinder during a long exposure. (the background is blurred, but not the subject)

Aperture and Depth of Field Depth of field means “zone of apparent image sharpness” Small apertures (like f/22 or f/32) give a large depth of field, while large apertures (like f/2 or f/4) give a shallow depth of field. f/2.8 f/16

Focal length of Lens Affects Depth of Field Longer focal length = more image magnification Angle of view: subject inclusion changes with focal length 7.5mm 180º 24mm 84º (wide-angle) 50mm 46º (normal) 100mm 24º (telephoto) 800mm 3º

Normal Focal Length Closest to view of human eye 35mm camera: normal focal length = 50mm 50mm (normal) focal length

Wide-Angle Lens Shorter-than-normal focal length 35mm camera: moderate wide-angle = 35mm 24mm focal length, from same position

Long-Focus or Telephoto Lens Longer-than-normal focal length 35mm camera, moderate telephoto = 70mm to 500mm + 400mm focal length, from same position

Film Storage Protect your film from: High humidity: store in moisture-proof container High temperature: store in refrigerator or freezer Bring film to room temperature before using! Exposure to light: load and unload in shadow Exposure to X-rays: in airports, ask for hand inspection or use lead-foil bags Age: film box is dated

Film Handling Film is sensitive to scratching and fingerprints Keep camera clean Use slow, steady motion when advancing or rewinding film

Camera and Lens Care and Maintenance Avoid rough handling Protect lens from fingerprints and scratches Protect camera and lens from moisture, humidity, heat, dirt, direct sunlight Never force controls

Camera and Lens Care and Maintenance Battery Check regularly and replace if necessary Keep contacts clean Periodic service center maintenance Cleaning Clean carefully with soft cloths and brushes Never clean focal plane shutter or single-lens reflex camera mirror Clean lens only when necessary with lens brush or compressed air