Thinking, Intelligence, and Language Chapter 7 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 1

Chapter Preview The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology Thinking Intelligence Language

The Cognitive Revolution Cognition Way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing Shift away from behaviorism in 1950s Computer analogy for human cognition and brain Artificial Intelligence (AI) Cognitive Psychology Approaches seeking to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that cannot be directly observed 3

The Computer Analogy 4

Thinking Manipulating information mentally Concepts Problem Solving Reasoning and Decision Making Thinking Critically and Creatively Expertise 5

Concepts Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics Allow generalization Allow association of experiences and objects Aid memory Provide clues about how to react to particular object or experience Prototype Model Comparison of item with most typical item in category 6

Problem Solving Finding appropriate way to attain goal which is not readily available Find and Frame Problems Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies Subgoaling Algorithms Heuristics Evaluate Solutions Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions 7

Problem-Solving Strategies Subgoaling Setting intermediate goals Defining intermediate problems Algorithms Strategies that guarantee solution to problem Heuristics Shortcut strategies that suggest solution to problem 8

Obstacles to Problem Solving Fixation Using prior strategy Failing to look at problem from fresh, new perspective Functional Fixedness Failure to solve problem due to fixedness on usual function of something Failure to “think outside the box” 9

The Maier String Problem 10

Reasoning & Decision Making Mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions Inductive Reasoning From specific observations to generalizations Deductive Reasoning From general case to specific instance Decision Making Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them 11

Biases in Decision Making Confirmation Bias Tendency to search for and use information that supports ideas rather than refutes them Hindsight Bias Tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that outcome was accurately predicted 12

Heuristics in Decision Making Rules of thumb Availability Heuristic Prediction about possibility of event based on recalling or imagining similar events Base Rate Fallacy Tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information Representativeness Heuristic Tendency to make judgments about group membership based on match to group stereotype 13

Thinking Critically Thinking reflectively and productively Evaluating evidence Mindfulness Being alert and mentally present for everyday activities Open-Mindedness Being receptive to other ways of looking at things 14

Thinking Creatively To think about something in novel/unusual ways To devise unconventional solutions to problems Divergent Thinking Producing many solutions to same problem Brainstorming Convergent Thinking Producing single best solution to problem Creative thinkers do both. 15

Thinking Creatively Flexibility and playful thinking Inner motivation Willingness to face risk Objective evaluation of work 16

Intelligence Cultures vary in ways they define intelligence. All-purpose ability . . . to do well on cognitive tasks to solve problems to learn from experience 17

Measuring Intelligence Validity Extent to which test measures what it is intended to measure Reliability Extent to which test yields consistent, reproducible measure of performance Standardization Uniform procedures for administering and scoring Norms, or performance standards for test 18

IQ Tests Mental Age (Binet) Intelligence Quotient (Stern) Individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others Intelligence Quotient (Stern) Mental Age (MA) vs. Chronological Age (CA) IQ = MA/CA * 100 Normal Distribution Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve 19

Normal Distribution of IQ 20

Cultural Bias in IQ Testing Culturally biased tests have favored people . . . From urban, rather than rural, environments Of middle, rather than low, socioeconomic status Who are White, rather than African American Culture-Fair (or Culture-Reduced) Tests Intelligence tests intended to be culturally unbiased Include questions familiar to people of all backgrounds Or include no verbal questions Raven Progressive Matrices 21

Raven Progressive Matrices 22

Genetic Influences on Intelligence Genetic markers Locations for intelligence on chromosomes 4, 6, and 22 Heritability Proportion of observable differences explained by genes Approximately 75% for intelligence Increases with age, due to choice of environments Statistic providing information about group, not individual Can change over time and across groups 23

Environmental Influences Impact of enriched environments and opportunities on intellectual ability Flynn Effect Phenomenon of rapidly increasing IQ test scores May be due to rising levels of education, or other environmental factors Intelligent behaviors always an option 24

Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness High intelligence and/or superior talent in some area Product of both heredity and environment Mental Retardation Condition of limited mental ability Low IQ Difficulty adapting Exhibited these characteristics by age 18 25

Mental Retardation Organic Retardation Cultural-Familial Retardation Caused by genetic disorder or by brain damage Cultural-Familial Retardation Mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage Classification Based on IQ Mild, moderate, severe/profound Based on degree of support required Intermittent, limited, extensive, pervasive 26

Theories of Multiple Intelligences Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Analytical Intelligence Creative Intelligence Practical Intelligence Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Frames of Mind) Verbal, Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist 27

Language Form of communication based on system of symbols Infinite Generativity Ability to produce endless number of meaningful sentences 28

Basic Properties of Language Phonology Sound system Morphology Rules for word formation Syntax Rules for combining words into phrases/sentences Semantics Meaning of words and sentences Pragmatics Ability of language to communicate more than said 29

Language and Cognition Language  Cognition Language may determine/cause way we think (Whorf) Or, language may merely reflect way we think Cognition  Language Mental retardation often, but not always, accompanied by reduced language proficiency Language and thought related, but not part of single system 30

Biological Influences on Language Language Universals (Chomsky) Biological prewiring to learn language in humans Imitation not adequate to learn language Language and the Brain Language processing in left hemisphere Broca’s area  speech production Wernicke’s area  language comprehension 31

Environmental Influences Language as nothing more than chain of responses acquired through reinforcement (Skinner) Language as complex learned skill Not tenable, given rapid language development Critical period Special time during which language must develop Biology and environment interact for language. 32

Language Development Over the Life Span Babbling Endlessly repeating sounds and syllables Sorting through sounds for ones with meaning First words Two-word statements Learning second language Sensitive periods 33