Applied Hydrology RSLAB-NTU Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling 1 The Hydrological Cycle Professor Ke-Sheng Cheng Dept. of Bioenvironmental Systems Engineering National Taiwan University

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 2 What is hydrology? A branch of geoscience. An engineering practice. Environmental and global aspects of hydrology

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 3 American Geophysical Union (AGU) Sections

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 4 European Geosciences Union (EGU) Divisions

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 5 Asia Oceania Geosciences Society (AOGS) Sections

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 6 The hydrological cycle The Hydrological Cycle (also known as the water cycle) is the journey water takes as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again. To assess the total water storage on the earth reliably is a complicated problem because water is very dynamic. It is in permanent motion, constantly changing from liquid to solid or gaseous phase, and back again.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 7 The quantity of water found in the hydrosphere is the usual way of estimating the earths water. This is all the free water existing in liquid, solid or gaseous state in the atmosphere, on the Earths surface and in the crust down to a depth of 2000 metres. Current estimates are that the earths hydrosphere contains a huge amount of water - about 1386 million cubic kilometres. However, 97.5% of this amount exists as saline waters and only 2.5% as fresh water.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 8 The greatest portion of the fresh water (68.7%) is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctic, the Arctic and in the mountainous regions. 29.9% exists as fresh groundwaters. Only 0.26% of the total amount of fresh water on the earth is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs and river system, where it is most easily accessible for our economic needs and absolutely vital for water ecosystems.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 9 The values for stored water given above are for natural, static, water storage in the hydrosphere. It is the amount of water contained simultaneously, on average, over a long period of time, – in water bodies, aquifers and the atmosphere. For shorter time intervals such as a single year, a couple of seasons or a few months, the volume of water stored in the hydrosphere will vary as water exchanges take place between the oceans, land and the atmosphere.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 10 The total amount of water on the earth and in its atmosphere does not change. However, oceans, rivers, clouds and rain, all of which contain water, are in a frequent state of change. This circulation and conservation of earths water as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again is called the hydrological cycle or water cycle.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 11 Diagram of hydrological cycle

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 12 Stages of the hydrological cycle Evaporation Transport Condensation Precipitation Groundwater Runoff

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 13 Evaporation Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through evaporation, the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas. The suns heat provides energy to evaporate water from the earths surface. Land, lakes, rivers and oceans send up a steady stream of water vapor and plants also lose water to the air (transpiration). Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans, with the remaining 20% coming from inland water and vegetation.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 14 Transport The movement of water through the atmosphere, specifically from over the oceans to over land, is called transport. Some of the earths moisture transport is visible as clouds, which themselves consist of ice crystals and/or tiny water droplets. Clouds are propelled from one place to another by either the jet stream, surface-based circulations like land and sea breezes or other mechanisms. Most water is transported in the form of water vapor (which is invisible to us).

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 15 Condensation As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds. Precipitation The primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth is precipitation. When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation, in the form of rain, sleet or snow, is triggered and water returns to the land (or sea). A proportion of atmospheric precipitation evaporates.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 16 Groundwater Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may occur; 1) some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Runoff Most of the water which returns to land flows downhill as runoff. Some of it penetrates and charges groundwater while the rest, as river flow, returns to the oceans where it evaporates.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 17 Daniel Bramer

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 18 Climate Change and the Hydrological Cycle (Professor James C.I. Dooge, Centre for Water Resources Research, University College Dublin) The advances in simulating future climate change by global climate models over the past two decades has reduced many of the original uncertainties in relation to this problem. The problems of estimating the impact of such change on the hydrological cycle present even greater difficulties. Only when these are overcome can we tackle with hope of success the still greater problems of reducing these impacts.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 19 There have been a number of important international conferences and statements on climate impacts and water resources over the past ten years or so. International Conference on Water and the Environment (ICWE, 1991) the need for a holistic approach to the development and management of water resources.

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 20 Recommendations of the Second International Conference on Climate and Water (Espoo, 1998) research priorities (data networks, problems of scale, need for interdisciplinary dialogue); research management (large scale land-surface experiments, advanced planning for remote sensing, communication with decision makers and the public); project design and management (effect of climate change, broad dialogue on practical operational problems, conflict resolution on water issues); and policy formulation (national planning based on up-to- date information, respect for local culture and level of development, involvement of all stakeholders at an early stage).

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 21 Key issues in hydrological research Variabilities Spatial, Temporal, Spatiotemporal Scaling issues Scale-invariant Downscaling Modeling Calibration Forecasting Assessment

Lab for Remote Sensing Hydrology and Spatial Modeling RSLAB-NTU 22 Modeling hydrological processes Stationary versus non-stationary Homogeneous versus non-homogeneous Model structure Empirical (Black-box) model Conceptual model Physical model