Cognitive & Moral Development

Language Development First months –Responsive to pitch, intensity, and sound of language By 4 to 6 months, –They have learned many basic sounds of their language. –Lose ability to perceive speech sounds in other language. Between 6 months and 1 year: Babbling Phase –More familiar w/ sound structure of their native language. Around 11 months –Develop repertoire of symbolic gestures. Between 18 months and 2 years –Two- and three-word combinations are produced –First combinations have a telegraphic quality.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Proposed that children must make two types of mental adaptations –Assimilation Fitting new information into present system of knowledge, beliefs, and schemas (categories of things and people). –Accommodation Must change or modify existing schemas to accommodate new information that doesn’t fit.

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old) –Infants learn through concrete actions; “thinking” consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movements. –Begin to understand object permanence at around six months; involves understanding that something continues to exist even if you can’t see it or touch it. –Object permanence represents the beginning of representational thought--ability to use mental imagery and other symbolic systems. Preoperational stage ( 2 to 7) –Accelerated use of symbols and language in play and in imitation of adult behavior. –Limitations Cannot reason or use abstract principles (called operations). Piaget believed thinking was egocentric--that preoperational children are unable to take the point of view of another person. Cannot grasp conservation--notion that physical properties do not change when forms or appearances change.

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages Concrete operations stage ( 7 to 11) –Accomplishments--understand conservation, reversibility, cause and effect, identity, mathematical operations, serial ordering. –Thinking is still concrete, not abstract--grounded in concrete experiences. Formal operations stage (12 to adulthood) –Beginning of abstract reasoning. –Can reason systematically, think about the future, think about situations they have not experienced firsthand.

Of substance “Do the two pieces have the same amount of clay?” Of number “Do the two rows have the same number of pennies?”

Of substance “Do the two pieces have the same amount of clay?” Of number “Do the two rows have the same number of pennies?”

Current Views on Cognitive Development Shifts from stage to stage not as clear-cut as Piaget proposed. Children understand more than Piaget gave them credit for. –As young as 4 months show understanding of some physics principles. –Children advance more rapidly in their symbolic activities. Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought. Children’s cognitive development depends on education and culture. Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills of many adults. –Some people never develop the capacity for formal operations. –Some people continue to think concretely unless a specific problem requires abstract thought. Most psychologists accept Piaget’s major point, that new reasoning abilities depend on the emergence of previous ones. Most people agree that children actively interpret their worlds.

Moral Reasoning Learning to be Good Kohlberg’s theory states there are 3 levels of moral reasoning that are universal and occur in invariant order. –Level 1- Preconventional Morality Stage 1--fear punishment for disobedience Stage 2--in their best interest to obey –Level 2 - Conventional Morality, typically reached around 10 or 11 years of age Stage 3--based on conformity and loyalty Stage 4--a “law-and-justice” orientation –Level 3 - Postconventional (“Principled”) Morality Stage 5--values and laws are relative and change; recognition that people hold differing standard Stage 6--standard based on universal human rights

Limitations of Kohlberg’s Theory Stage theories tend to overlook cultural and educational influences on reasoning. People’s moral reasoning is often inconsistent across situations. Moral reasoning and behavior are sometimes unrelated.

Parents Enforce Moral Standards Power assertion Induction Authoritative versus authoritarian styles

GENDER DEVELOPMENT Gender identity –Sense of maleness or femaleness regardless of what one wears or does. Gender typing –Society's expectations governing male and female attitudes and behavior.

Influences on Gender Development –Biological influences Toy and play preferences may have a biological basis. –Cognitive influences Children develop gender schemas (mental network of beliefs and expectations about what it means to be male or female). As they mature, these schemas influence their behavior. At 9 months most babies can discriminate male and female faces. Once children can label themselves as boys or girls, they begin to prefer same-sex playmates and sex-typed toys. Ages 2 to 4 important for development of gender schemas. Boys: stronger preferences for masculine toys & activities than girls for feminine ones. Differences appear to be related to gender differences in status. Gender schemas change throughout our lives, but continue to influence us. –Learning influences Differences between boys and girls also the result of gender socialization. Assertiveness is rewarded more in boys; verbal behavior is rewarded more in girls. Children learn to adjust their behavior, making it more gender-typed.

ADOLESCENCE Period of development between puberty (the age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction) and adulthood.

Physiology of Adolescence Males produce higher levels of androgens than females. Females produce higher levels of estrogens than males. Males: reproductive glands stimulated to produce sperm from testes. Females: reproductive glands stimulated to produce eggs from ovar. Females: menstruation (menarche) begins and breasts develop. Males: nocturnal emissions, growth of testes, scrotum, and penis. Hormones responsible for secondary sex characteristics. Age of puberty has been declining in developing countries. Growth spurt occurs in both sexes; earlier for girls than for boys. Early and late matures may have special problems.

Psychology of Adolescence Studies find that extreme turmoil and unhappiness are the exception. One's peer group is particularly influential. Externalizing problems become more common in boys. Internalizing problems become more common in girls. Suicide rates increasing in boys. Preteens who encounter problems are often reacting to specific changes in the environment. Conflicts often stem from their need to individuate. The extent to which parents and teens quarrel depends on cultural norms.

Turmoil and Adjustment Conflict with parents Mood swings and depression Higher rates of rule-breaking and risky behavior

Separation & Individuation Adolescents are trying to separate from parents but remain connected. Individuation The process of developing one’s own opinions, values, style of dress, and look. Quarrels with parents represent a shift from one-sided parental authority to a more reciprocal adult relationship.

Timing of Puberty Onset of puberty depends on genetic and environmental factors. E.g., body fat triggers the hormonal changes Early vs. late onset Early maturing boys have more positive views of their bodies and are more likely to smoke, binge drink, and break the law. Early maturing girls are usually socially popular but also regarded by peer group as precocious and sexually active. They are more likely to fight with parents, drop out of school, and have a negative body image.

Erikson’s eight stages Trust vs. mistrust Infancy (birth-age 1) Autonomy vs. shame & doubt Toddler (ages 1-2) Initiative vs. guilt Preschool (ages 3-5) Industry vs. inferiority Elementary school (ages 6-12) Identity vs. role confusion Adolescence (ages 13-19) Intimacy vs. isolation Young adulthood (ages 20-40) Generativity vs. stagnation Middle adulthood (ages 40-65) Integrity vs. despair Late adulthood (ages 65 and older)