Imperial China: From the First to the Last Emperor Shana J. Brown Department of History University of Hawaii
Tactics in studying Chinese history… Appreciating the extraordinary degree of geographical, cultural, linguistic, and ethnic diversity Countering the myth of “ eternal China ” by defining historical units and themes that acknowledge growth, change, influences by outside world Looking for historical themes that enrich our understanding of contemporary problems, without reducing them to stereotypes
Aspects of the imperial system The bureaucratic operation and ritual coherence of the empire provided social coherence despite significant ethnic, linguistic, religious, and other cleavages China ’ s borders were malleable – the empire grew and contracted in size, without losing distinctive political, economic, and cultural features Imperial system required social consent and cultural harmony – numerically small regimes can only survive via strategic partnerships
Part I: Legalism v. Confucianism
Zhou feudalism and decline Spring and Autumn Period ( BC) Feudal: central king & subservient fiefdoms Central state loses authority as kings become corrupt Last Zhou king is defeated by vassal, allied with “ barbarian ” forces Fiefdoms devolve into independent states
Warring States ( BC) Age of Confucius and the philosophers Effective political & social structures attract & control subjects Confucians: ruler relies on moral example and elite cooperation
Rise of the State of Qin & Legalism Ruler is distant, impartial, and stern Strict rules & punishments leads to secure, prosperous society No hereditary nobility; private ownership & taxation
Imperial ambitions Qin Shihuang (259 – 210 BC) conquers neighboring states Builds Great Wall to the north, Lingqu Canal to the south
Rule by standardization Weights & measures, currency, cart axels standardized Non-Qin characters outlawed Outlaws & burns existing most texts, kills scholars who resist
Search for immortality Qin Shihuang obsessed with elixir of life Builds enormous, elaborate tomb to ensure power and comfort in afterlife
Qin conquered by Han (206 BC – 220 CE) After collapse of Qin, two rebel commanders emerge; victor is proclaimed emperor of new dynasty Han initially reestablish feudal system, but gradually develop new administrative system
Han administration system Semi-autonomous fiefdoms gradually made smaller, and autonomous staff was replaced by appointees from central court Introduced an Imperial College to teach Confucian texts and literature Confucian ritual elevated above Legalist focus on power of the emperor Concepts of Mandate of Heaven and rule by ethics replace Legalist emperor’s claim to absolute power and rule by decree
A flourishing economy Government monopolies on salt, iron, and other commodities encourage trade and increase state revenue Loyalty of wealthy landowners essential to government taxation & functioning Han Dynasty coin and mold
Ritual and performance Elaborate temple & tomb architecture Ritual practice aimed to achieve purification, repentance, and the expiation of sins Minister of Ceremonies organized court ritual, administered imperial examinations
The tensions of the imperial system New states founded by conquest, but survive by accommodation and consent Administrative power relies on pragmatic rule, ritual persuasion Rulers emphasize popular welfare as the definition of good government, but expect obedient population
Part II: Inner and Outer Empires
After Han, age of disunity Invasion of nomadic groups from northern steppes diverse cultures and political structures Rise of Buddhism as significant moral and cultural influence
Tang Dynasty ( CE) Tang rulers linked to nomadic groups Population reached some 50 million people Creation of unified legal code; resurrection of Han institutions Buddhist & Daoist institutions at the height of their power and wealth
Tang culture and society Increased trade led to greater variety of foodstuffs, including the “golden peaches of Samarkand”…
Control and danger How to defend and police such a large population, such diffuse borders Problem of rebellion, particularly in borderlands: An Lushan and the Tibetans Attacks on the Buddhism: in 846, seizure of temples and other property
Song Dynasty ( CE) Introduction of fast- growing rice led to dramatic population growth Development of specialized agriculture and more sophisticated urban markets Rise of Neo- Confucianism as state orthodoxy
The idealized Song capital: “Going upriver on the Qingming Festival”
Why no industrial revolution? Did language impede innovation? Was there an “ equilibrium trap ” between population and need for labor- saving devices? Too protective to take advantage of trade and culture exchange?
Song falls to northern invaders Song conquered first by Jin, then by Yuan (Mongols) Mongols discriminate against Han Chinese, but eventually revive many aspects of Song imperial system
China in the Ming Dynasty ( )
Korean map dating to 1402 (before Zheng He’s voyages)
Ming administrative power
Great walls
Imperial political “parties” “Maritime party” – wants to direct more resources towards SE Asia, maritime trade Anti-maritime party: wanted to focus on domestic development, threats from NW frontier
The tributary system Foreign states expected to hold peaceful, if subservient attitudes Gift exchange reinforced China’s position of as supreme political power, as well as trade Tribute included native products, like elephants from Siam, or eunuchs and virgin girls for harem Mongol envoys to Ming court (courtesy of a Dutch artist)