Chapter 1 A Continent of Villages

In 1492 Columbus… Vikings in the 11th Century Zheng He and China 1421-1423 Zheng He Columbus

BERINGIA Migration Routes from Asia to America During the Ice Age, Asia and North America were joined where the Bering Straits are today, forming a migration route for hunting peoples. Either by boat along the coast, or through a narrow corridor between the huge northern glaciers, these migrants began making their way to the heartland of the continent as much as 30,000 years ago.

Pre-Columbian time period. First Americans came from Asia (Three migrations from Asia beginning about 30,000 years ago) Crossed the Bering Strait during the Ice Age Following a food source Gradual migration

Early Human Migrations

CLOVIS TECHNOLOGY

GLOBAL WARMING CHANGES CLIMATE& GEOGRAPHY 15,000 YEARS AGO!

GEOGRAPHY = SOCIAL ECONOMIC POLITICAL EXISTENCE

When, in 1927, archaeologists at Folsom, New Mexico, uncovered this dramatic example of a projectile point embedded in the ribs of a long-extinct species of bison, it was the first proof that Indians had been in North America for many thousands of years.

Geography tied to social, economic, political habits Great Plains (west) Hunting Bison Folsom Tech Trapping Animals Required cooperation of community Navaho, Apache, Intuits (Eskimos) Great Basin (desert) Utah, Nevada Pursuit of small game, foraging for plant foods Emphasized gift-giving Small annually migrating communities East of Miss. (forest efficiency) Hunted small game Burned woodlands to stimulate plant growth & create meadows to attract animals Permanent communities Gender roles evident

Existing N. American cultures were not “primitive” Were underestimated by contemporaries and historians Vast trade networks – trails or roads? Socialization – values, traditions, kinship bonds Specialization – tasks based on division of labor Political – diplomacy, rules of war Cultural – art, music, oral history Cahokia (Mississippian – mid-1200’s) Anasazis (SW farming culture – 1st century CE)

The Development of Farming 5,000 years ago Mesoamerican maize cultivation, as illustrated by an Aztec artist for the Florentine Codex, a book prepared a few years after the Spanish conquest. The peoples of Mesoamerica developed a greater variety of cultivated crops than those found in any other region in the world, and their agricultural productivity helped sustain one of the world’s great civilizations. SOURCE:American Museum of Natural History. FARMING = Settled Communities & Social Complexity

Cahokia

Monumental public works like these the Mississippian people. The Great Serpent Mound in southern Ohio, the shape of an uncoiling snake more than 1,300 feet long, is the largest effigy earthwork in the world. Monumental public works like these the Mississippian people. SOURCE:Photo by George Gerster.Comstock Images.

The City of Cahokia, with a population of more than 30,000, was the center of a farming society that arose on the Mississippi bottomlands near present-day St. Louis in the tenth century CE.

Cahokia

Cliff Palace, at Mesa Verde National Park in southwest Colorado, was created 900 years ago when the Anasazis left the mesa tops and moved into more secure and inaccessible cliff dwellings.

The New Queen Being Taken to the King, engraved by Theodor de Bry in the sixteenth century from a drawing by Jacques le Moyne, an early French colonist of Florida.

350+ native societies when Europeans arrived 7-10 million people Clovis tradition (N. Mex) demonstrated Indians there 12,000 yrs. Ago Montana to Mexico, Nova Scotia to Arizona Indians were VERY diverse (range of unique regional cultures & differences w/in regions) Migration from Asia on NW land passage across Bering Straits (25,000-30,000 yrs. ago)

James Fraser’s “The End of the Trail” (1915), a monumental sculpture created for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco. John Vanderlyn’s “The Death of Jane McCrea” (1804) depicted an incident of the Revolution, the murder and scalping of a Patriot woman by warriors fighting with the British.

Chapter 2 When Worlds Collide

Western Europe in the Fifteenth Century

Europe on the Eve of Contact Feudalism/Hierarchy Catholic Church/Anti-Semitism Famine/ Disease/ Black Death/ Violence Crusades Renaissance/ Technology Protestant Reformation

A French peasant labors in the field before a spectacular castle in a page taken from the illuminated manuscript Tres Riches Heures, made in the fifteenth century for the duc de Berry. In 1580 the essayist Montaigne talked with several American Indians at the French court who “noticed among us some men gorged to the full with things of every sort while their other halves were beggars at their doors, emaciated with hunger and poverty” and “found it strange that these poverty-stricken halves should suffer such injustice, and that they did not take the others by the throat or set fire to their houses.” SOURCE:Photograph by Giraudon,Art Resource,N.Y.

Causes of European Exploration Merchants & New Monarchs (Commercial Revolution) = capital Centralized Governments Renaissance>inventions from Asia (compass, gunpowder, movable type) + humanism > drive to explore + knowledge of eastern riches Protestant Reformation Land Scarcity Capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Ottoman Turks

EUROPEAN MOVEMENT ONTO INDIAN LAND

New Maritime Technologies Better Maps [Portulan] Hartman Astrolabe (1532) Mariner’s Compass Sextant

New Weapons Technology

Explorers Sailing For Portugal Portugal – took lead in 15th C exploration caravel (faster vessel) Prince Henry the Navigator - Portugal - Funded Exploration down coast of Africa - 1419-1460 Dias - Portugal - Rounded the Cape of Good Hope - 1488 da Gama - Portugal - Opened trade with India - Placed Portugal in position to dominate trade with India - 1498 Cabral - Portugal - Claimed present day Brazil for Portugal - 1500

The 3 motives reinforce each other Direct Causes = 3 G’s Political: Become a world power through gaining wealth and land. (GLORY) Economic: Search for new trade routes with direct access to Asian/African luxury goods would enrich individuals and their nations (GOLD) Religious: spread Christianity and weaken Middle Eastern Muslims. (GOD) The 3 motives reinforce each other

Columbus’ Four Voyages

Columbian Exchange or the transfer of goods involved 3 continents, Americas, Europe and Africa * Squash * Avocado * Peppers * Sweet Potatoes * Turkey * Pumpkin * Tobacco * Quinine * Cocoa * Pineapple * Cassava * POTATO * Peanut * Tomato * Vanilla * MAIZE * Syphillis * Olive * Coffee Beans * Banana * Rice * Onion * Turnip * Honeybee * Barley * Grape * Peach * Sugar Cane * Oats * Citrus Fruits * Pear * Wheat * HORSE * Cattle * Sheep * Pig * Smallpox * Flu * Typhus * Measles * Malaria * Diptheria * Whooping Cough

The Treaty of Tordesillas, 1434 & The Pope’s Line of Demarcation, 1493

European Colonization Once the New World is discovered, the Big 4 four European countries begin competing for control of North America and the world…. Spain England France Portugal This power struggle ultimately leads to several wars.

F/I War 1750

Spanish Frontier of (forced) Inclusion Marched across Caribbean islands (1492+) Gold & riches Botolome de la Casas – Span Catholic Priest – wrote Destruction of the Indies (1552) Why destroyed? – not war, rather starvation, disease (small pox, measles, malaria, typhoid), lower birthrate Height of Spanish Power = 16th century

Cycle of Conquest & Colonization Explorers Conquistadores Missionaries European Colonial Empire Permanent Settlers

The Colonial Class System Peninsulares Spanish ancestory Creoles Spanish and Black mixture. Mestizos Spanish and Indian mixture Mulattos White American and Black mixture Black Slaves Native Indians

First Spanish Conquests: The Aztecs Cortes conquered Aztec Empire in 1519 and took control of modern day Mexico. vs. Hernando Cortés Montezuma II

The Death of Montezuma II

Mexico Surrenders to Cortés

First Spanish Conquests: The Incas Pizarro conquered Incan Empire in modern day Peru in 1532 vs. Francisco Pizarro Atahualpa

This drawing of victims of the smallpox epidemic that struck the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán in 1520 is taken from the Florentine Codex.

Father Bartolomé de Las Casas Believed Native Americans had been treated harshly by the Spanish. Indians could be educated and converted to Christianized. Believed Indian culture was advanced as European but in different ways. New Laws --> 1542

Conquest not colonization The Destruction of the Indies Conquest not colonization The Cruelties Used by the Spaniards on the Indians, from a 1599 English edition of The Destruction of the Indies by Bartolomé de las Casas. These scenes were copied from a series of engravings produced by Theodore de Bry that accompanied an earlier edition. SOURCE:British Library.

Changing of the Guard Spain (15th-16th century) – gold & later planting sugar & enslaved Indians Ex. Cortez (Mex 1519-21), Pizarro (Peru 1531-35) 17th C – Spanish civ. in New World declines by 1600 due to overworked land & Indian labor force dying off from disease Defeat of Spanish Armada by English (1588) destroys Spanish monopoly on New World Positive legacy? – frontier of inclusion = mixing between male colonists & native women

The French French settle Quebec (1608) & Montreal (1642) and what would become Canada Control St. Lawrence River & access to interior of North America Develop a fur trade Couier do Bois Frontier of Inclusion

The French, under the command of Jean Ribault, land at the mouth of the St. Johns River in Florida. The image shows the local Timucua people welcoming the French, It is likely that the Timucuas viewed the French as potential allies against the Spanish, who had plundered the coast many times in pursuit of slaves. SOURCE:Colored engraving,1591,by Theodor de Bry after a now lost drawing by Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues;The Granger Collection.

European Colonization The Dutch Like French, Dutch focus on fur trade & send only a few men to settlements Found Albany (New York, 1614) on Hudson River New Netherland (becomes New York) is an extension of the Dutch global trade system Dutch & French form alliances with Native Americans—increase warfare & Iroquois (Dutch ally) defeat Hurons- Frontier of Inclusion

Protestant Reformation 1517 – Martin Luther Calvin – few predestined for heaven Challenged dominance of Catholic Church King Henry VIII couldn’t get annulment of marriage from Catherine from Pope Formed Church of England & forged alliance with wealthy merchant class Queen Elizabeth more moderate but periods of persecution during the 17th century push English Protestants to New World

The Armada Portrait of Elizabeth I, painted by an unknown artist in 1648. The queen places her hand on the globe, symbolizing the rising seapower of England. Through the open windows, we see the battle against the Spanish Armada in 1588 and the destruction of the Spanish ships in a providential storm, interpreted by the queen as an act of divine intervention. SOURCE:Elizabeth I ,Armada portrait,ca.1588 (oil on panel),by English School.Private collection/The Bridgeman Art Library International,Ltd.

English Motives Economic Religious Strategic Enclosure movement led to dislocation of farmers Indian markets for British goods – grow tropical products Religious Anglican Church (Church of England) – Protestants flee Strategic Bases to raid Spanish in Caribbean

English Began by Plundering & Privateering Sir Francis Drake (1567) “Sea Dogs” Focused on settling mid-latitudes Roanoke, VA “The Lost Colony”(1584-87) – Walter Raleigh English v Algonquin Sir Walter Raleigh hoped to find fur for sale, develop plantations and find gold & silver, privateering Wanted Indians as labors – Indians resisted – by 1590 all colonists gone Where’s Greenville? “Croatoan?”

Roanoke Island

VA Jamestown 1607 VA Company Powhatan Confederacy – expel Europeans or exploit them? John Smith Winter 09-10 – tastes like chicken > 400 of 40 starve Brutal warfare until 1613 – Pocahontas

Intercontinental Exchange

Intercontinental Exchange (Cultural Diffusion) From New World to Old: gold, silver, corn potatoes, beans, chocolate, cotton, tobacco From From Old to New: horses, cows, pigs, disease, manufactured goods From Old World to Africa: guns, beer, cloth, iron From Africa to New World: enslaved persons

FIGURE 2.1 North America’s Indian and Colonial Populations in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries The primary factor in the decimation of native peoples was epidemic disease, brought to the New World from the Old. In the eighteenth century, the colonial population overtook North America’s Indian populations. SOURCE:Historical Statistics of the United States (Washington,DC: Government Printing Office,1976),8,1168;Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,1987),32.

FIGURE 2.2 The African, Indian, and European Populations of the Americas In the 500 years since the European invasion of the Americas, the population has included varying proportions of Native American, European, and African peoples, as well as large numbers of persons of mixed ancestry. SOURCE:Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones,Atlas of World Population History (New York:Penguin,1978),280.