Chapter 3: A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations Introduction to Public Relations Chapter 3: A Theoretical Basis for Public Relations Copyright © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved. McGraw-Hill/Irwin

WHY UNDERSTAND THEORY? Theories help practitioners explain and predict human behavior and guide organizational decision making.

CONNECTING THEORIES WITH PUBLIC RELATIONS What is theory? A theory is a prediction of how the world will work under certain circumstances. How do theories help the PR practitioner? Applying theories correctly can help campaigns and messages be more effective (i.e. more supportive of accomplishing organizational goals).

THEORIES OF RELATIONSHIPS Cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in understanding how organizations relate to their publics. Systems theory Situational theory

SYSTEMS THEORY Definition: The attitudes and actions of an organization or public contribute to a cause-effect chain reaction within their environment. Organizations and publics exist in relationship to each other, meaning the actions of one affects the actions and reactions of the others.

APPLYING SYSTEMS THEORY TO PR Helps the practitioner manage the organization’s relationships. Emphasizes interdependence between an organization and its internal and external environments. Two types of systems Open Closed

OPEN SYSTEMS Focuses on input from external publics and the organization’s external environment. Allows for the two-way flow of information between an organization and its environment

CLOSED SYSTEM Focuses on the history of the organization and makes decisions based on past experiences.

SITUATIONAL THEORY Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. Three variables: Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally. Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue. Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.

TWO BENEFITS OF SITUATIONAL THEORY Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become active or remain apathetic. Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for specific publics. Determine status with respect to each of the three variables Determine potential strategies to address “deficient” variables Choose final strategy

PUBLIC OPINION THEORIES What are attitudes? What are opinions? Is there any interaction between attitudes and opinions? What is cognitive dissonance? Are we influenced by rational or irrational reasoning?

SHAPING PUBLIC OPINION What are attitudes? Predispositions to respond in a given way to an issue or situation What are opinions? Can be an expression of an attitude on a controversial issue. Can be a more “temporary” (i.e. state-driven) reaction to an issue

PR OBJECTIVES FOR SHAPING OPINION Conserve Favorable Opinion Crystallize uninformed, or latent opinion Change/neutralize hostile opinion

COGNITION AND BEHAVIOR Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while behavioral theories deal with action. Cognitive Theories Words and actions are given personalized meanings by receivers, and sometimes that meaning is not what was intended by the sender. Practitioners seek to influence the publics’ interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent. Example: Company expansion and growth (may be perceived as negative)

THEORIES OF PERSUASION & SOCIAL INFLUENCE Explain how humans think and behave in relation to one another Three common theories include Social exchange theory Diffusion theory Social learning theory

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY Uses the economic metaphor of costs and benefits to predict behavior In general people want their costs to be low and rewards to be high (is this logical?) Practitioners look at how publics evaluate costs and rewards to demonstrate and maximize the net benefits of particular action. Example: Persuading voters or consumers to take a survey Example: Product recalls Example: Passing a new law

DIFFUSION THEORY Individuals are influenced to diffuse and adopt an idea in five stages. Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption Mass media is useful in the first two stages, and personal influence is needed in the next two before adoption takes place. The “information trap”

THE FIVE STAGES OF ADOPTION 1. Awareness – Topic known but knowledge limited. Stage engages the mass media 2. Interest – Development of interest begins; information sought. 3. Evaluation – Idea applied to individual situations, more information obtained. Stage engages unbiased third parties 4. Trial – Use begins on a small scale. 5. Adoption – Idea, service or product adopted after being proven worthwhile. Stage engages personal experience

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Social Psychologist Albert Bandura suggests that we can learn new behaviors by observing others. When we see a behavior leading to a reward we value, we may adopt that behavior for ourselves. Example: In employee relations we can see that if inappropriate behavior is rewarded for one employee, others may adopt this inappropriate behavior pattern.

SUMMARY OF THEORIES ABOUT COGNITION & BEHAVIOR Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that reduce costs and increase rewards. Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages. Social Learning Theory: people can be influenced by seeing how others are rewarded for particular actions.

THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION There are three theories that help us understand the powerful influence of media. Use and Gratification Theory Framing Theory Agenda Setting Theory

A DEFINITION OF MEDIA The English word media is a Latin derivative of medius, meaning middle. For our purposes we define media as… all the means of communication, such as newspapers, radio, TV, the internet/mobile technologies that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., usually along with advertising (Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 1999). Traditional Mass Media vs. New Media

USE AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY People are active users of media and choose how and when to use media based on its gratification for them. Reasons for media usage include… for entertainment to scan the environment for items that are important to them as a diversion as a substitute for personal relationships as a check on self-identity Why do you pay attention to the media?

APPLICATION FOR THE PRACTITIONER The use and gratification theory helps the practitioner explain media effects, or the absence of effects. The practitioner must remember that just because a message is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention to, remember or even understand it (or its implications).

FRAMING THEORY Theory supposes that media messages may carry with them a pre-existing (implicit) set of meanings and associations. People tend to process information in the way in which it is presented to them (i.e. contextualized). Catchphrases or visual images “The War on Terror” or “Terrorism” “Sustainability” “Occupy Wall Street” “Public Welfare”

AGENDA SETTING THEORY Agenda Setting is based on the assumption that although media can’t tell people what to think about an issue, it can influence what issues people think about. Media has the potential to increase issue salience.

MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS Press agentry: oldest form of public relations practice where propaganda tactics, special events, and “guerilla” tactics are used. Little regard for research or ethics. Public Information: intent is to inform through one-way information such as press releases. Two-way asymmetrical model: scientific persuasion using social science methods to increase persuasiveness of messages. Two-way symmetrical model: depicts public relations orientation in which organizations and public adjust to each other. It focuses on the use of social science methods to achieve mutual understanding and two-way communication

NEWER MODELS FOR THE PR PRACTICE Jim Grunig has developed numerous models that more effectively explain how public relations works Personal Influence model: Practitioners develop personal relationships with key individuals because of their influence. (as easy as it sounds?) Cultural Interpreter model: Establishes that to do effective public relations in another country, the practitioner needs to work with someone who understands the local language, culture, customs and politics.

APPROACHES TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing another because of differences in values and goals. Four resolution elements: Separate the people from the problem. Focus on interests, not positions. Invent options for mutual gain. Insist on objective criteria: What are the facts?