1. Slide 1 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Part One Public Relations…The Profession Chapter 3 Theoretical Basis for Public Relations © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Slide 2 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis In Part One–Chapter 3, Our Focus Is The Use of Theory In Public Relations There is no single theory that covers all public relations and communication. There is no single theory that covers all public relations and communication. Today we will study three theories about relationships, five about cognition and behavior, and two about media and communication. Today we will study three theories about relationships, five about cognition and behavior, and two about media and communication.

3. Slide 3 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Why Understand Theory? Theories help practitioners explain and predict human behavior and communication and guide organizational decision making. Let’s discuss communication theory…

4. Slide 4 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis How Theories Connect with Public Relations What is theory? What is theory? A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are related. A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are related. How do theories help the PR practitioner? How do theories help the PR practitioner? Using theories can make campaigns and messages more effective. Using theories can make campaigns and messages more effective.

5. Slide 5 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Theories of Relationships Cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in understanding how organizations relate to their publics. Cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in understanding how organizations relate to their publics. Systems theory Systems theory Situational theory Situational theory First, the systems theory…

6. Slide 6 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Systems Theory Definition: The attitudes and actions of an organization or public contribute to a cause- effect chain reaction within their environment. Definition: The attitudes and actions of an organization or public contribute to a cause- effect chain reaction within their environment. The parts of an organization and public exist in relationship to each other, meaning the actions of one part affect the others. The parts of an organization and public exist in relationship to each other, meaning the actions of one part affect the others. Slide 6 of 38

7. Slide 7 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Applying Systems Theory to Public Relations Systems theory is especially useful to public relations because it helps the practitioner manage the organization’s relationships. Systems theory is especially useful to public relations because it helps the practitioner manage the organization’s relationships. This theory emphasizes interdependence between an organization and its internal and external environments. This theory emphasizes interdependence between an organization and its internal and external environments. There are two types of systems…

8. Slide 8 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Closed and Open Systems Closed System: Focuses on the history of the organization and makes decisions based on past experiences. Closed System: Focuses on the history of the organization and makes decisions based on past experiences. Open System: Focuses on input from external publics and the organization’s external environment. Open System: Focuses on input from external publics and the organization’s external environment.

9. Slide 9 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Situational Theory Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. Three variables: Three variables: Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally. Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally. Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue. Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue. Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue. Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue. Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. Three variables: Three variables: Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally. Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally. Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue. Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue. Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue. Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue. Slide 9 of 38

10. Slide 10 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Two Benefits of Situational Theory Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become active or remain apathetic. Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become active or remain apathetic. Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for specific publics. Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for specific publics. How to handle conflicts…

11. Slide 11 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Cognition and Behavior Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while behavioral theories deal with action. Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while behavioral theories deal with action. Public relations practitioners find it useful to think about effects—how their client’s behavior affects others. Public relations practitioners find it useful to think about effects—how their client’s behavior affects others. Practitioners know that words and actions are given personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that meaning is not what was intended. Practitioners know that words and actions are given personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that meaning is not what was intended. The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent. The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent.

12. Slide 12 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Theories of Persuasion & Social Influence To learn how humans think and behave, four theories are highlighted here: To learn how humans think and behave, four theories are highlighted here: Social exchange theory Social exchange theory Diffusion theory Diffusion theory Social learning theory Social learning theory Elaborated likelihood model Elaborated likelihood model How do people listen and remember?

13. Slide 13 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Social Exchange Theory Uses the economic metaphor of costs and benefits to predict behavior Uses the economic metaphor of costs and benefits to predict behavior In general people want their costs low and rewards high (eg. Get-rich quick schemes). In general people want their costs low and rewards high (eg. Get-rich quick schemes). Apply to public relations by looking at how to let publics evaluate costs and rewards to show benefit of particular action. Apply to public relations by looking at how to let publics evaluate costs and rewards to show benefit of particular action.

14. Slide 14 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Diffusion Theory Individuals can be influenced to diffuse and adopt an idea by going through five stages. Mass media is useful in the first two stages, and personal influence is needed in the next two before adoption takes place. 1. awareness 2. interest 3. evaluation 4. trial 5. adoption Slide 14 of 38

15. Slide 15 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis The Five Stages Of Adoption 1. awareness 2. interest 3. evaluation 4. trial 5. adoption 1. Awareness – Topic known but knowledge limited. 2. Interest – Development of interest begins; information sought. 3. Evaluation – Idea applied to individual situations, more information obtained. 4. Trial – Use begins on a small scale. 5. Adoption – Idea, service or product adopted after being proven worthwhile.

16. Slide 16 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Channels Engaged In Each Stage mass media and significant others mass media and significant others unbiased third parties and significant others unbiased third parties and significant others significant others and personal experience significant others and personal experience 1. awareness 2. interest 3. evaluation 4. trial 5. adoption

17. Slide 17 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Social Learning Theory Social Psychologist Albert Bandera suggests that we can learn new behaviors by observing others. Social Psychologist Albert Bandera suggests that we can learn new behaviors by observing others. When we see a behavior that has the reward we want, we may adapt that behavior for ourselves. When we see a behavior that has the reward we want, we may adapt that behavior for ourselves. Thus, in employee relations we can see that if inappropriate behavior has been rewarded for one employee, others may follow. Thus, in employee relations we can see that if inappropriate behavior has been rewarded for one employee, others may follow.

18. Slide 18 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Elaborated Likelihood Model Theory says there are two ways people are influenced: central route and a peripheral route Theory says there are two ways people are influenced: central route and a peripheral route This model proposes the peripheral route in which people are influenced by such things as the following: This model proposes the peripheral route in which people are influenced by such things as the following: Repetition Repetition Highly credible spokesperson Highly credible spokesperson Tangible rewards (coupons, free samples) Tangible rewards (coupons, free samples)

19. Slide 19 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis A Summary of Theories about Cognition and Behavior Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that reduce costs and increase rewards. Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that reduce costs and increase rewards. Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages. Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages. Social Learning Theory: people can be influenced by seeing how others are rewarded for particular actions. Social Learning Theory: people can be influenced by seeing how others are rewarded for particular actions. Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies choose between central/peripheral routes based on receiver’s motivation to process. Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies choose between central/peripheral routes based on receiver’s motivation to process.

20. Slide 20 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Theories of Mass Communication There are two theories that help us understand the powerful influence of media. There are two theories that help us understand the powerful influence of media. Use and Gratification Theory Use and Gratification Theory Agenda Setting Theory Agenda Setting Theory How do we define media?

21. Slide 21 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis A Definition of Media The English word media is a Latin derivative of medius, meaning middle. The English word media is a Latin derivative of medius, meaning middle. For our purposes we define media as… For our purposes we define media as… all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., usually along with advertising (Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 1999). all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., usually along with advertising (Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 1999). Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun. Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.

22. Slide 22 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Use and Gratification Theory People are active users of media and choose how and when to use media based on its gratification for them. People are active users of media and choose how and when to use media based on its gratification for them. You should research why your particular publics use media. Do they do it… You should research why your particular publics use media. Do they do it… as entertainment as entertainment to scan the environment for items that are important to them to scan the environment for items that are important to them as a diversion as a diversion as a substitute for personal relationships as a substitute for personal relationships as a check on self-identity as a check on self-identity The connection with PR…

23. Slide 23 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Application for the Practitioner The use and gratification theory helps the practitioner explain media effects, or the absence of effects. The use and gratification theory helps the practitioner explain media effects, or the absence of effects. The practitioner must remember that just because a message is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention and remember it. The practitioner must remember that just because a message is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention and remember it.

24. Slide 24 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Agenda Setting Theory Agenda Setting is based on the assumption that although media can’t tell people what opinion to hold about an issue, it has influence on what issues people think about.

25. Slide 25 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis The Influence of Agenda Setting The agenda setting theory proposes that media has the potential to: The agenda setting theory proposes that media has the potential to: build issue or product awareness build issue or product awareness increase issue salience increase issue salience How do movies, mass media, affect what issues people discuss? Slide 25 of 38

26. Slide 26 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Public Relations Roles….the manager Roles have been defined in public relations theory by public relations scholars Glen Broom and David Dozier Expert prescriber: person who operates as a consultant to define the problem, suggest options, and oversee implementation Expert prescriber: person who operates as a consultant to define the problem, suggest options, and oversee implementation Communication facilitator: person on the boundary between the organization and its environment who keeps two-way communication flowing. Communication facilitator: person on the boundary between the organization and its environment who keeps two-way communication flowing. Problem-solving facilitator: person who partners with senior management to identify and solve problems. Problem-solving facilitator: person who partners with senior management to identify and solve problems.

27. Slide 27 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Models of Public Relations Practice Press agentry: oldest form of public relations practice where propaganda tactics, special events, are used. Little regard for research or ethics. Press agentry: oldest form of public relations practice where propaganda tactics, special events, are used. Little regard for research or ethics. Public Information: intent is to inform through one-way information such as press releases. Public Information: intent is to inform through one-way information such as press releases. Two-way asymmetrical model: scientific persuasion using social science methods to increase persuasiveness of messages. Two-way asymmetrical model: scientific persuasion using social science methods to increase persuasiveness of messages. Two-way symmetrical model: depicts public relations orientation in which organizations and public adjust to each other. It focuses on use of social science methods to achieve mutual understanding and two-way communication Two-way symmetrical model: depicts public relations orientation in which organizations and public adjust to each other. It focuses on use of social science methods to achieve mutual understanding and two-way communication

28. Slide 28 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Other newer models for Public Relations Practice Personal Influence model: personal relationships with keep individuals is developed. Also, an asymmetrical model. Personal Influence model: personal relationships with keep individuals is developed. Also, an asymmetrical model. Cultural Interpreter model: depicts an asymmetrical form of public relations practice but it indicates that a person doing public relations in another country needs someone who understands the language, culture, customs and politics to do business. Cultural Interpreter model: depicts an asymmetrical form of public relations practice but it indicates that a person doing public relations in another country needs someone who understands the language, culture, customs and politics to do business.

29. Slide 29 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Conflict Resolution Approaches Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing another because of differences in values and goals. Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing another because of differences in values and goals. Four resolution elements: Four resolution elements: Separate the people from the problem. Separate the people from the problem. Focus on interests, not positions. Focus on interests, not positions. Invent options for mutual gain. Invent options for mutual gain. Insist on objective criteria. Insist on objective criteria.

30. Slide 30 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Public Opinion theories…. What are attitudes? What are attitudes? What are opinions What are opinions Is there any interaction between attitudes and opinions? Is there any interaction between attitudes and opinions? What is cognitive dissonance? What is cognitive dissonance? Are we influenced by rational or irrational reasoning? Are we influenced by rational or irrational reasoning?

31. Slide 31 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Public Opinion What are attitudes? What are attitudes? Predispositions to respond in a given way to an issue or situation Predispositions to respond in a given way to an issue or situation What are opinions? What are opinions? Expression of an attitude on a controversial issue. Expression of an attitude on a controversial issue.

32. Slide 32 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis PR Objectives for Shaping Opinion Conserve Favorable Opinion Conserve Favorable Opinion Crystallize uninformed, or latent opinion Crystallize uninformed, or latent opinion Change/neutralize hostile opinion Change/neutralize hostile opinion

33. Slide 33 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Public Opinion Principles Identification Principle Identification Principle Action Principle Action Principle Familiarity Principle Familiarity Principle Clarity Principle Clarity Principle

34. Slide 34 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Identification Principle People will ignore an idea, opinion, point of view unless they see clearly that it affects their personal fears or desires, hopes or aspirations. People will ignore an idea, opinion, point of view unless they see clearly that it affects their personal fears or desires, hopes or aspirations.

35. Slide 35 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Action Principle People do not buy ideas separated from action—either action taken or about to be taken by the sponsor of the idea or action which people themselves can conveniently take to prove the merit of the idea.

36. Slide 36 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Familiarity and Trust Principle People buy ideas only from those they trust. We are influenced by, or adopt, only those opinions or points of view put forward by individuals or corporations or institutions in whom we have confidence. People buy ideas only from those they trust. We are influenced by, or adopt, only those opinions or points of view put forward by individuals or corporations or institutions in whom we have confidence.

37. Slide 37 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis Clarity Principle The situation must be clear to us, not confusing. The thing we observe, read, see, or hear…the thing that produces our impressions must be clear, not subject to several interpretations. The situation must be clear to us, not confusing. The thing we observe, read, see, or hear…the thing that produces our impressions must be clear, not subject to several interpretations.

38. Slide 38 of 38 Introduction to Public Relations Theoretical Basis In Summary… Understanding the theories behind the behavior of an organization’s publics is essential for developing strategies and tactics that can help an organization achieve its goals. Modern PR practitioners focus on two-way communication that values the input of the publics as much as the persuasive power of the organization.