Chapter 11 Leadership Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-1 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. Leadership The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 387-388. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-2 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Distinguishing Leadership From Management Engages in day-to-day caretaker activities: Maintains and allocates resources Exhibits supervisory behaviour: Acts to make others maintain standard job behaviour Administers subsystems within organizations Asks how and when to engage in standard practice Acts within established culture of the organization Uses transactional influence: Induces compliance in manifest behaviour using rewards, sanctions, and formal authority Relies on control strategies to get things done by subordinates Status quo supporter and stabilizer Leadership Formulates long-term objectives for reforming the system: Plans strategy and tactics Exhibits leading behaviour: Acts to bring about change in others congruent with long-term objectives Innovates for the entire organization Asks what and why to change standard practice Creates vision and meaning for the organization Uses transformational influence: Induces change in values, attitudes, and behaviour using personal examples and expertise Uses empowering strategies to make followers internalize values Status quo challenger and change creator Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 388. According to Kanungo, leaders provide vision and strategy; management implements that vision and strategy, coordinates and staffs the organization, and handles day-to-day problems. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-3 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Individual Exercise Identify an example of someone you thought was a good leader. What traits did they have? How did they behave as a leader? How do their traits or behaviour differ from someone you identify as a bad leader? Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-4 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

What makes a leader? What makes a leader effective? Three general questions: Is there a particular set of traits that all leaders have, making them different from non-leaders? Are there particular behaviours that make for better leaders? How much impact does the situation have on leaders? Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 388-389. These theories examine how leaders/managers operate on a day-to-day level, supervising employees to get things done. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-5 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Trait Theories Traits are characteristics of the person: Physical characteristics Abilities Personality traits Traits consistently associated with leadership: Ambition and energy The desire to lead Honesty and integrity Self-confidence Intelligence Job-relevant knowledge Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 389-390. Overall, the cumulative findings from more than half a century of research lead us to conclude that some traits increase the likelihood of success as a leader, but none of the traits guarantees success. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-6 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership EI is the best predictor of who will emerge as a leader. IQ and technical skills are “threshold capabilities.” They’re necessary but not sufficient requirements for leadership. Leaders need: self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills to become a star performer. These are the components of EI. Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 390. It’s the possession of the five components of emotional intelligence--self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills--that allows an individual to become a star performer. Without EI, a person can have outstanding training, a highly analytical mind, a long-term vision, and an endless supply of terrific ideas, but still not make a great leader. This is especially true as individuals move up in an organization. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Behavioural Theories of Leadership Propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Initiating structure E.g., task orientation, work orientation, production orientation Consideration Employee needs and concerns Examples Ohio Studies, Michigan Studies, Managerial Grid Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 391-392. Each of the three behavioural approaches received some empirical support for the idea that being people oriented was an important behaviour of leaders, although there were also exceptions in each case. In the Ohio studies, leaders who were production oriented (that is, high on initiating structure) experienced greater rates of grievances, absenteeism, and turnover, and lower levels of job satisfaction from workers performing routine tasks. In the Michigan studies, employee-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction. Production-oriented leaders tended to be associated with low group productivity and lower job satisfaction. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-8 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

The Managerial Grid Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership. Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. 9 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Low High Concern for production 1 Country club management 1,9 Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo. Team management 9,9 Work accomplishment is from committed people who have a “common stake” in the organization’s purpose. This leads to relationships of trust and respect. Impoverished management 1,1 Authority-obedience 9,1 Middle-of-the-road management 5,5 Adequate organizational performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. Concern for people Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 393. The results based on the findings of Blake and Mouton are consistent with those of the Ohio and Michigan studies. Managers were found to perform best under a 9,9 (team management style), as contrasted, for example, with a 9,1 (authority-obedience) or 1,9 (country club) style. However, there is little substantive evidence to support the conclusion that a 9,9 style is most effective in all situations. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-9 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Contingency or Situational Leadership Theories Stress the importance of considering the context when examining leadership. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory Path-Goal Theory Substitutes for Leadership Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 393-397. These theories acknowledge that predicting leadership success is more complex than isolating a few traits or preferable behaviours. Popular moderating variables used in the development of contingency theories include the degree of structure in the task being performed, the quality of leader-member relations, the leader’s position power, subordinates’ role clarity, group norms, information availability, subordinate acceptance of leader's decisions, and subordinate maturity. The major theory covered under situational theories in the text is Path-Goal Theory. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory Follower: unable and unwilling Leader: Telling - needs to give clear and specific directions. Follower: unable but willing Leader: Selling - needs to display high task orientation and high relationship orientation. Follower: able but unwilling Leader: Participating - needs to use a supportive and participative style. Follower: both able and willing Leader: Delegating - a laissez-faire approach will work Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 394-395. Follower: unable but willing High task orientation compensates for the follower’s lack of ability, and high relationship orientation gets the follower to “buy into” the leader's desires (in other words, the leader “sells” the task). Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Exhibit 11-6 Path-Goal Theory CONTINGENCY FACTORS Environmental • Task Structure Formal Authority System Work Group Subordinate Locus of control Experience Perceived ability Leader Behaviour Directive Achievement-oriented Participative Supportive Outcomes Performance Satisfaction Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 396. This exhibit indicates the contingency factors that determine the appropriate leader behaviour. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-12 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Path-Goal Guidelines to Be Effective Leader Determine the outcomes subordinates want. e.g., good pay, job security, interesting work, and autonomy to do one’s job, etc. Reward individuals with their desired outcomes when they perform well. Be clear with expectations. Let individuals know what they need to do to receive rewards (the path to the goal). Remove barriers that prevent high performance. Express confidence that individuals have the ability to perform well. Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 395-396. This theory was developed by Martin Evans and expanded upon by Robert House and combines elements of initiating structure and consideration with expectancy theory. A major idea is that a leader’s behaviour is acceptable to subordinates insofar as they view it as a source of either immediate or future satisfaction. Research is generally supportive of this theory; that is, employee performance and satisfaction are likely to be positively influenced when the leader compensates for things lacking in either the employee or the work setting.   Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-13 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Path-Goal Leadership Styles Directive Informs subordinates of expectations, gives guidance, shows how to do tasks. Supportive Friendly and approachable, shows concern for status, well-being, and needs of subordinates. Participative Consults with subordinates, solicits suggestions, takes suggestions into consideration. Achievement oriented Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to perform at highest level, continuously seeks improvement in performance, has confidence in highest motivations of employees. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages 396-397. Directive leadership: - Leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out; - Is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high perceived ability or with considerable experience (research dimension is high or low “perceived ability,” not a measure of actual high or low ability). - Leads to higher employee satisfaction when there is substantive conflict within a work group. - Will lead to greater satisfaction when employees have an external locus of control. Supportive leadership: - Results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. - Is needed when there are clear and bureaucratic formal authority relationships. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-14 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership Characteristics of Individual Experience/training Professionalism Indifference to rewards Characteristics of Job Highly structured task Provides its own feedback Intrinsically satisfying Characteristics of organization Explicit formalized goals Rigid rules and procedures Cohesive work groups Effect on Leadership Substitutes for task-oriented leadership Substitutes for relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership Neutralizes relationship-oriented and task-oriented leadership Substitutes for relationship-oriented leadership Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 397. Leadership may not always be important. Data from numerous studies collectively demonstrate that, in many situations, whatever behaviours leaders exhibit are irrelevant. Certain individual, job, and organizational variables can act as substitutes for leadership or neutralize the leader’s effect to influence his or her subordinates. Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behaviour to make any difference to subordinate outcomes. They negate the leader’s influence. Substitutes, on the other hand, make a leader’s influence not only impossible but also unnecessary. They act as a replacement for the leader’s influence. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-15 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Transformational Leadership Transactional Leadership is what we’ve been talking about… Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements Now let’s get to Transformational Leadership… Leaders who inspire followers to go beyond their own self-interests for the good of the organization Leaders who have a profound and extraordinary effect on their followers Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-16 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Characteristics of Transactional Leaders Contingent reward Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments. Management by exception (active) Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action. Management by exception (passive) Intervenes only if standards are not met. Laissez-Faire leader Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 400. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-17 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Characteristics of Transformational Leaders Charisma Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. Inspiration Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual stimulation Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem-solving. Individualized consideration Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 400. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-18 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Charismatic Leadership Leadership that critically examines the status quo with a view to developing and articulating future strategic goals or vision for the organization, and then leading organizational members to achieve these goals through empowerment strategies. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 400. Some examples of individuals frequently cited as being charismatic leaders include René Lévesque, Jean Charest, Lucien Bouchard, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., Walt Disney, Steve Jobs (co-founder of Apple Computer), Mary Kay Ash (founder of Mary Kay Cosmetics), Lee Iacocca (former chairman of Chrysler), and Craig Kielburger (the Canadian teenager who founded Free the Children to promote children’s rights and combat exploitation of child labour). Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-19 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Charismatic Leadership An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways Characteristics of charismatic leaders: Have a vision Are able to articulate the vision Are willing to take risks to achieve the vision Are sensitive to the environment and to follower needs Exhibit behaviours that are out of the ordinary Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-20 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Charismatic Leadership (cont’d) Effects of Charismatic Leadership Increased motivation, greater satisfaction More profitable companies Charismatic leadership may have a downside: After recent ethics scandals, some agreement that CEOs with less vision, and more ethical and corporate responsibility, might be more desirable When following is based on identification with an individual, what happens when the individual is gone? Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-21 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Visionary Leadership A leader who creates and articulates a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation Visionary leaders have the ability to: Explain the vision to others Express the vision not just verbally but through behaviour Extend or apply the vision to different leadership contexts Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-22 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Servant Leadership Is built on a natural desire to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. Makes sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served, such that those served grow as persons, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants. Encourages collaboration, trust, foresight, listening, and the ethical use of power and empowerment. * These notes adapted from the Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership at http://www.greenleaf.org/ Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-23 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Dispersed Leadership Mentoring Providing Team Leadership Self-leadership Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 404-407. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-24 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Mentoring Many leaders create mentoring relationships. A mentor is often a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee (a protégé). The mentoring role includes: Coaching Counselling Sponsorship Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 405-406. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-25 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Providing Team Leadership Leading teams requires new skills. e.g., patience to share information, trust others, give up authority, and knowing when to intervene Leading teams requires new roles. Liaisons with external constituencies Troubleshooters Conflict managers Coaches Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 406-407. Leadership is increasingly taking place within a team context. As teams grow in popularity, the role of the leader in guiding team members takes on heightened importance. The role of team leader is different from the traditional leadership role performed by first-line supervisors. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-26 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Team Leaders Team leaders need to focus on two priorities: Managing the team’s external boundary. Facilitating the team process. Four specific roles Liaisons with external constituencies. Troubleshooters Conflict managers Coaches Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 406-407. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-27 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Factors Calling for Self-Leadership Reduced levels of supervision Offices in the home Teamwork Growth in service and professional employment where individuals are often required to make decisions on the spot Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 408. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-28 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

How Do Leaders Create Self-Leaders? Model self-leadership. Encourage employees to create self-set goals. Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and increase desirable behaviors. Create positive thought patterns. Create a climate of self-leadership. Encourage self-criticism. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages 408-409. 1. Model self-leadership. Practice self-observation, setting challenging personal goals, self-direction, and self-reinforcement. Then display these behaviours and encourage others to rehearse and then produce them. 2. Encourage employees to create self-set goals. Having quantitative, specific goals is the most important part of self-leadership. 3. Encourage the use of self-rewards to strengthen and increase desirable behaviors. In contrast, self-punishment should be limited only to occasions when the employee has been dishonest or destructive. 4. Create positive thought patterns. Encourage employees to use mental imagery and self-talk to further stimulate self-motivation. 5. Create a climate of self-leadership. Redesign the work to increase the natural rewards of a job and focus on these naturally rewarding features of work to increase motivation. 6. Encourage self-criticism. Encourage individuals to be critical of their own performance. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-29 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Benefits of Leading Without Authority Latitude for creative deviance Easier to raise questions. Issue focus Freedom to focus on single issue, rather than many issues. Frontline information Often closer to the people who have the information. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 409. Leading without authority simply means exhibiting leadership behaviour even though you do not have a formal position or title that might encourage others “to obey.” The benefits are: Latitude for creative deviance. Because one does not have authority, and the trappings that go with authority, it is easier to raise harder questions and look for less traditional solutions. Issue focus. Leading without authority means that one can focus on a single issue, rather than be concerned with the myriad issues that those in authority face. Frontline information. Leading without authority means that one is closer to the detailed experiences of some of the stakeholders. Thus more information is available to this kind of leader. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-30 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Individual Exercise When you’ve worked in student groups, how frequently have leaders emerged in the groups? What difficulties occur when leaders are leading peers? Are there ways to overcome these difficulties? Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 422. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-31 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Contemporary Issues in Leadership Moral Leadership Gender and Leadership Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 409-415. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-32 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

The Moral Foundation of Leadership Truth telling Telling the truth as you see it, because it allows for a mutual, fair exchange to occur. Promise keeping Leaders need to be careful of the commitments they make, and then careful of keeping those promises. Fairness This ensures that followers get their fair share for their contributions to the organization. Respect for the individual Telling the truth, keeping promises, and being fair all show respect for the individual. Respect means treating people with dignity. Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 410-411. There are a number of places where ethics and leadership meet. Questions arise about the use of power and charisma: Is charisma used to enhance control over others for the personal gain of the leader, or for some social good? If a person is powerful, do they begin to marginalize others who are not so powerful? There are questions about integrity and honesty in leadership. Leadership is not values free. Leaders should be judged not only by the outcomes of their actions, but also by all the means they use to reach these outcomes. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-33 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

How Many Women Make it to the Top? Women in general comprise: 46.2 percent of the labour force 32 percent of managers and administrators 14 percent of senior managers 57 percent of graduate degree holders 51 percent of Canadian population Half of Canada’s companies have no women in top ranks. Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 411-412. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-34 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Men’s and Women’s Leadership Styles In general, women fall back on a democratic leadership style: Encourage participation. Share power and information. Attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth. Prefer to lead through inclusion. Men feel more comfortable with a directive command-and-control style: Rely on formal authority. Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages 413-414. The similarities between men and women tend to outweigh the differences, but what differences there are seem to be that women fall back on a more democratic leadership style whereas men feel more comfortable with a directive style. Women encourage participation, share power and information, and attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth. They prefer to lead through inclusion and rely on their charisma, expertise, contacts, and interpersonal skills to influence others. Men rely more on formal authority and utilize a more directive command and control style. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-35 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Where Female Managers Do Better: A Scorecard None of the five studies set out to find gender differences. They stumbled on them while compiling and analyzing performance evaluations. Skill (Each check mark denotes which group scored higher on the respective studies) * In one study, women’s and men’s scores in these categories were statistically even. MEN WOMEN Motivating Others Fostering Communication Producing High-Quality Work Strategic Planning Listening to Others Analyzing Issues * Data: Hagberg Consulting Group, Management Research Group, Lawrence A. Pfaff, Personnel Decisions International Inc., Advanced Teamware Inc. Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page 414. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-36 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Breakout Group Exercises Form small groups to discuss the following: 1. Identify an example of someone you thought was a good leader. What traits did they have? How did these traits differ from someone you identify as a bad leader? 2. Identify a situation when you were in a leadership position (in a group, in the workplace, within your family, etc.). To what extent were you able to use a contingency approach to leadership? What made that easier or more difficult for you? 3. When you’ve worked in student groups, how frequently have leaders emerged in the groups? What difficulties occur when leaders are leading peers? Are there ways to overcome these difficulties? Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 422. Chapter 11, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Organizational Behaviour, Fourth Canadian Edition 11-37 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada