1. Chapter 8
Leadership

2. Questions for Consideration Questions for Consideration
Leadership
Questions for Consideration
Questions for Consideration
1. What is the difference between a manager and a leader?
2. Are there specific traits, behaviours, and situations that affect how one leads?
3. How does a leader lead with vision?
4. Can a person be an informal leader?
5. What is self-leadership?
6. What are some of the hot topics in leadership?

3. Exhibit 8-1 Distinguishing Leadership From Managership
Engages in day-to-day caretaker activities: Maintains and allocates resources
Exhibits supervisory behaviour: Acts to make others maintain standard job behaviour
Administers subsystems within organizations
Asks how and when to engage in standard practice
Acts within established culture of the organization
Uses transactional influence: Induces compliance in manifest behaviour using rewards, sanctions, and formal authority
Relies on control strategies to get things done by subordinates
Status Quo supporter and stabilizer
Leadership
Formulates long-term objectives for reforming the system: Plans strategy and tactics
Exhibits leading behaviour: Acts to bring about change in others congruent with long-term objectives
Innovates for the entire organization
Asks what and why to change standard practice
Creates vision and meaning for the organization
Uses tranformational influence: Induces change in values, attitudes, and behaviour using personal examples and expertise
Uses empowering strategies to make followers internalize values
Status Quo challenger and change creator
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
According to Kanungo, leaders provide vision and strategy; management implements that vision and strategy, coordinates and staffs the organization, and handles day-to-day problems.

4. Leadership as Supervision
Three general questions
Are there a particular set of traits that all leaders have, making them different from nonleaders?
Are there particular behaviours that make for better leaders?
How much impact does the situation have on leaders?
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
These theories examine how leaders/managers operate on a day-to-day level, supervising employees to get things done.

5. Trait Theories Trait: characteristics of the person
Physical Characteristics
Abilities
Personality Traits
Traits consistently associated with leadership
Ambition and energy
The desire to lead
Honesty and integrity
Self-confidence
Intelligence
Job-relevant knowledge
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
Overall, the cumulative findings from more than half a century of research lead us to conclude that some traits increase the likelihood of success as a leader, but none of the traits guarantees success

6. Exhibit 8-2 What CEOs Identify as Leadership Traits
Communication skills
Ability to motivate people
Honesty
Ability to listen
Team-building expertise
Analytical skills
Aggressiveness in business
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 251.

7. Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
EI is the best predictor of who will emerge as a leader.
IQ and technical skills are "threshold capabilities."
They're necessary but not sufficient requirements for leadership.
Leaders need: self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills to become a star performer.
These are the components of EI.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 252.
It's the possession of the five components of emotional intelligence--self-awareness, self-management, self-motivation, empathy, and social skills--that allows an individual to become a star performer. Without EI, a person can have outstanding training, a highly analytical mind, a long-term vision, and an endless supply of terrific ideas, but still not make a great leader. This is especially true as individuals move up in an organization.

8. Behavioural Theories of Leadership
Propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nonleaders
Initiating Structure
(e.g., task-orientation, work-orientation, production-orientation)
Consideration
(employee needs and concerns)
Examples
Ohio Studies, Michigan Studies, Managerial Grid
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
Each of the three behavioural approaches received some empirical support for the idea that being people oriented was an important behaviour of leaders, although there were also exceptions in each case.
In the Ohio studies, leaders who were production oriented (that is, high on initiating structure) experienced greater rates of grievances, absenteeism, and turnover, and lower levels of job satisfaction from workers performing routine tasks.
In the Michigan studies, employee-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productivity and higher job satisfaction. Production-oriented leaders tended to be associated with low group productivity and lower job satisfaction.

9. Exhibit 8-3 The Managerial Grid
High 9
1,9
9,9
Country club management
Team management 8
Thoughtful attention to needs
Work accomplishment is from
of people for satisfying relation-
committed people who have a
ships leads to a comfortable,
"common stake" in organization's
friendly organization atmos-
purpose.This leads to relationships 7
phere and work tempo.
of trust and respect. 6 5
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
The results based on the findings of Blake and Mouton are consistent with those of the Ohio and Michigan studies.
Managers were found to perform best under a 9,9 (team management style), as contrasted, for example, with a 9,1 (authority-obedience) or 1,9 (country club) style.
However, there is little substantive evidence to support the conclusion that a 9,9 style is most effective in all situations.
5,5 4
Middle-of-the-road management
Adequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessity
to get out work with maintaining morale 3
1,1
of people at a satisfactory level.
9,1
Impoverished management
Authority-obedience
Exertion of minimum effort
Efficiency in operations results 2
to get required work done is
from arranging conditions of
appropriate to sustain
work in such a way that human
organization membership.
elements interfere to a minimum
degree.
Low 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low
High
Concern for production

10. Contingency, or Situational Leadership Theories
Stress the importance of considering the context when examining leadership
Fiedler Contingency Model
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
Path-Goal Theory
Substitutes for Leadership
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
These theories acknowledge that predicting leadership success is more complex than isolating a few traits or preferable behaviours. Popular moderating variables used in the development of contingency theories include the degree of structure in the task being performed, the quality of leader-member relations, the leader’s position power, subordinates' role clarity, group norms, information availability, subordinate acceptance of leader's decisions, and subordinate maturity. The major theory covered under situational theories in the text is Path-Goal Theory.

11. Fiedler Contingency Model
Effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader
Least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire determined whether individuals were primarily interested in
good personal relations with co-workers, and thus relationship oriented
productivity, and thus task oriented
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page
Fiedler stated that the better the leader–member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has. He suggested that task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations.

12. Fiedler Contingency Model
Fiedler’s contingency situations
Leader member relations
Degree of confidence, trust and respect members have for leader
Task structure
Degree to which jobs are structured
Position power
Degree to which leader has control over “power”: hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, salary
Fiedler assumed that an individual’s leadership style is fixed.
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page

13. Exhibit 8-4 Hersey-Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Styles
Leader Behaviours
(High)
Participating
Selling S3 S2
Delegating
Telling
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on page S4 S1
(Low)
Task behaviour
(High)
Follower Readiness R4 R3 R2 R1
Able and
Unable and
Unable and
Able and
unwilling/
Unable and
Unable and
unwilling/
unwilling/
willing
willing
willing
apprehensive
insecure
insecure
High
Moderate
Low

14. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
Follower: unable and unwilling
Leader needs to give clear and specific directions (in other words, be highly directive)
Follower: unable but willing
Leader needs to display high task orientation to compensate for the follower’s lack of ability, and high relationship orientation to get the follower to "buy into" the leader's desires (in other words, “sell” the task)
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) focuses on followers’ maturity is one of the most practised leadership models, maturity being the ability and willingness of people to take responsibility for directing their own behaviour. Using the leadership dimensions of task and relations, Hersey and Blanchard developed the four leadership behaviours of
telling (high task, low relationship),
selling (high task, high relationship),
participating (low task, high relationship), and
delegating (low task, low relationship).
This theory is used frequently in corporate training.
SLT essentially views the leader-follower relationship as analogous to that between a parent and child. Just as a parent needs to relinquish control as a child becomes more mature and responsible, so too should leaders.

15. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
Follower: able but unwilling
Leader needs to use a supportive and participative style
Follower: both able and willing
Leader doesn't need to do much (in other words, a laissez-faire approach will work)
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

16. Path-Goal Guidelines to Be Effective Leader
Determine the outcomes subordinates want
e.g., good pay, job security, interesting work, and autonomy to do one’s job, etc.
Reward individuals with their desired outcomes when they perform well
Be clear with expectations
Let individuals know what they need to do to receive rewards (the path to the goal)
Remove barriers that prevent high performance
Express confidence that individuals have the ability to perform well
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
This theory was developed by Martin Evans and expanded upon by Robert House and combines elements of initiating structure and consideration with expectancy theory. A major idea is that a leader's behaviour is acceptable to subordinates insofar as they view it as a source of either immediate or future satisfaction.
Research is generally supportive of this theory; that is, employee performance and satisfaction are likely to be positively influenced when the leader compensates for things lacking in either the employee or the work setting.

17. Path-Goal Leadership Styles
Directive
Informs subordinates of expectations, gives guidance, shows how to do tasks
Supportive
Friendly and approachable, shows concern for status, well-being and needs of subordinates
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
Directive leadership:
- leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out;
- is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high perceived ability or with considerable experience;(XXX: research dimension is high or low “perceived ability”, not a measure of actual high or low ability.)
- leads to higher employee satisfaction when there is substantive conflict within a work group;
- will lead to greater satisfaction when employees have an external locus of control.
Supportive leadership:
- results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks;
- is needed when there are clear and bureaucratic formal authority relationships.
Participative leadership:
- will lead to greater satisfaction when employees have an internal locus of control (they believe they control their own destiny).
Achievement-oriented leadership:
- is effective when tasks are ambiguously structured.

18. Path-Goal Leadership Styles
Participative
Consults with subordinates, solicits suggestions, takes suggestions into consideration
Achievement oriented
Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to perform at highest level, continuously seeks improvement in performance, has confidence in highest motivations of employees
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

19. Exhibit 8-5 Path-Goal Theory
CONTINGENCY FACTORS
Environmental •
Task structure
Formal authority system
Work group
Subordinate
Locus of control
Experience
Perceived ability
Leader Behaviour
Directive
Achievement-oriented
Participative
Supportive
Outcomes
Performance
Satisfaction
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

20. Exhibit 8-6 Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership
Individual
Experience/training
Professionalism
Indifference to rewards
Job
Highly structured task
Provides its own feedback
Intrinsically satisfying
Organization
Explicit formalized goals
Rigid rules and procedures
Cohesive work groups
No effect on
Substitutes for
Neutralizes
Defining Characteristics
Relationship-
Oriented
Leadership
Task-
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
Leadership may not always be important. Data from numerous studies collectively demonstrate that, in many situations, whatever behaviours leaders exhibit are irrelevant. Certain individual, job, and organizational variables can act as substitutes for leadership or neutralize the leader’s effect to influence his or her subordinates. Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behaviour to make any difference to subordinate outcomes. They negate the leader’s influence. Substitutes, on the other hand, make a leader’s influence not only impossible but also unnecessary. They act as a replacement for the leader’s influence.

21. Can You Be a Better Follower?
All organizations have far more followers than leaders, so ineffective followers may be more of a handicap to an organization than ineffective leaders.
What qualities do effective followers have?
They manage themselves well
They are committed to a purpose outside themselves
They build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact
They are courageous, honest, and credible
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
A great leader needs effective followers. The qualities of effective followers are: they manage themselves well, they are committed to a purpose outside themselves, they build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum impact, and they are courageous, honest, and credible. Note that these qualities are similar to ones needed to be a good leader.

22. Exhibit 8-8 Characteristics of Transactional Leaders
Contingent Reward
Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.
Management by Exception (active)
Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action.
Management by Exception (passive):
Intervenes only if standards are not met.
Laissez-Faire Leader:
Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

23. Exhibit 8-8 Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
Charisma
Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
Inspiration
Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.
Intellectual Stimulation
Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem-solving.
Individualized Consideration
Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

24. Personal Characteristics of the Charismatic Leaders
Vision and articulation.
Has a vision--expressed as an idealized goal--that proposes a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others.
Personal risk.
Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision.
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
Some examples of individuals frequently cited as being charismatic leaders include René Lévesque, Jean Charest, Lucien Bouchard, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., Walt Disney, Steve Jobs (co-founder of Apple Computer), Mary Kay Ash (founder of Mary Kay Cosmetics), Lee Iacocca (former chairman of Chrysler), and Craig Kielburger (the Canadian teenager who founded Free the Children to promote children’s rights and combat exploitation of child labour)

25. Personal Characteristics of the Charismatic Leaders
Environmental sensitivity.
Able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources needed to bring about change.
Sensitivity to follower needs.
Perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings.
Unconventional behaviour.
Engages in behaviours that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

26. Research Evidence on Charismatic Leadership
Superiority of transformational leadership is impressive
Transformational military officers more effective than transactional officers
Transformational FedEx managers were evaluated as higher performers and more promotable
Transformational managers at financial services companies had higher business unit performance
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

27. Dispersed Leadership SuperLeadership Team leadership
Leading through empowerment
Putting employees in charge of what they do
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

28. SuperLeadership Leading others to lead themselves
Develop leadership capacity in others
Nurture employees so they feel less dependent on formal leadership
Emphasize delegation
Empower employees
Empowerment: giving employees responsibility for what they do
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 265.
SuperLeadership viewed as the leadership design of the future. A major feature of SuperLeadership is the emphasis on “leading others to lead themselves.”

29. Providing Team Leadership
Leading teams requires new skills
E.g., patience to share information, trust others, give up authority, and knowing when to intervene
Leading teams requires new roles
Liaisons with external constituencies
Troubleshooters
Conflict managers
Coaches
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
Leadership is increasingly taking place within a team context. As teams grow in popularity, the role of the leader in guiding team members takes on heightened importance. The role of team leader is different from the traditional leadership role performed by first-line supervisors.

30. Team Leaders Team leaders need to focus on two priorities
Managing the team’s external boundary
Facilitating the team process.
Four specific roles
Liaisons with external constituencies.
Troubleshooters
Conflict managers
Coaches
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 266.

31. Exhibit 8-9 Self-Leadership Practices
Planning
I plan out my day before beginning to work
I try to schedule my work in advance
I plan my career carefully
I come to work early to plan my day
I use lists and agendas to structure my workday
I set specific job goals on a regular basis
I set daily goals for myself
I try to manage my time
Access management
I control the access subordinates have to me in order to get my work done
I use a special place at work where I can work uninterrupted
I hold my telephone calls when I need to get things done
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
Individuals are increasingly being called upon to self-manage. Those who practise self-management look for opportunities to be more effective in the workplace and improve their career success. Their behaviour is self-reinforced, that is, they provide their own sense of reward and feedback after carrying out their accomplishments.
A 1999 study of 305 managers at a large retailing organization in the Midwestern United States identified four behaviours that can be considered self-management:: planning, access management, catch-up activities, and emotions management.
Those who practise self-management look for opportunities to be more effective in the workplace and improve their career success.

32. Exhibit 8-9 Self-Leadership Practices
Catch-up activities
I come in early or stay late at work to prevent distractions from interfering with my work
I take my work home with me to make sure it get done
I come in on my days off to catch up on my work
Emotions management
I have learned to manage my aggressiveness with my subordinates
My facial expression and conversational tone are important in dealing with subordinates
It is important for me to maintain a “professional” manager-subordinate relationship
I try to keep my emotions under control
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

33. Benefits of Leading Without Authority
Latitude for creative deviance
Easier to raise questions
Issue focus
Freedom to focus on single issue, rather than many issues
Frontline information
Often closer to the people who have the information
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages
Leading without authority simply means exhibiting leadership behaviour even though you do not have a formal position or title that might encourage others “to obey.” The benefits are:
Latitude for creative deviance. Because one does not have authority, and the trappings that go with authority, it is easier to raise harder questions and look for less traditional solutions.
Issue focus. Leading without authority means that one can focus on a single issue, rather than be concerned with the myriad issues that those in authority face.
Frontline information. Leading without authority means that one is closer to the detailed experiences of some of the stakeholders. Thus more information is available to this kind of leader.

34. Contemporary Issues in Leadership
Is there a Moral Dimension to Leadership?
Gender: Do Males and Females Lead Differently?
Cross-Cultural Leadership
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

35. The Moral Foundation of Leadership
Truth telling
Telling the truth as you see it, because it allows for a mutual, fair exchange to occur.
Promise keeping
Leaders need to be careful of the commitments they make, and then careful of keeping those promises.
Fairness
This ensures that followers get their fair share for their contributions to the organization.
Respect for the individual
Telling the truth, keeping promises, and being fair all show respect for the individual. Respect means treating people with dignity.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
There are a number of junctures of ethics and leadership. Questions arise about the use of power and charisma: is charisma used to enhance control over others for the personal gain of the leader, or for some social good? If a person is powerful, do they begin to marginalize others who are not so powerful? There are questions about integrity and honesty in leadership. Leadership is not values free. Leaders should be judged not only by the outcomes of their actions, but also by all the means they use to reach these outcomes.

36. Men’s and Women’s Leadership Styles
In general, women fall back on a democratic leadership style
Encourage participation
Share power and information
Attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth
Prefer to lead through inclusion
Men feel more comfortable with a directive command-and-control style
Rely on formal authority
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages
The similarities between men and women tend to outweigh the differences, but what differences there are seem to be that women fall back on a more democratic leadership style whereas men feel more comfortable with a directive style. Women encourage participation, share power and information, and attempt to enhance followers' self-worth. They prefer to lead through inclusion and rely on their charisma, expertise, contacts, and interpersonal skills to influence others. Men rely more on formal authority and utilize a more directive command and control style.

37. Cross-Cultural Leadership
Leaders are constrained by the culture in which they live and by the expectations of their subordinates.
For example, participation as a leadership style is likely to be more effective in counties with low power distance and some level of collectivism value.
Remember, most of these leadership theories and empirical studies have been developed and conducted in North America.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

38. Summary and Implications
Leadership plays a central part in understanding group behaviour
The study of leadership has expanded to include more heroic and visionary approaches to leadership
Male and female leadership styles tend to be more alike than different, although there are differences
Leadership is not value free
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

39. Summary and Implications
Effective team leaders perform four roles:
They act as liaisons
They are troubleshooters
They manage conflict
They coach team members
Empowered leadership is not the preferred leadership style of all occasions
National culture is an important variable in choosing a leadership style
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on pages

40. OB at Work

41. For Review 1. Trace the development of leadership research.
2. Describe the strengths and weaknesses in the trait approach to leadership.
3. What is the Leadership Grid?
4. When might leaders be irrelevant?
5. What characteristics define an effective follower?
6. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of a charismatic leader.
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 274.

42. For Review
7. What are the differences among transactional and transformational leaders?
8. What is dispersed leadership? What are some examples of dispersed leadership?
9. Why do you think effective female and male managers often exhibit similar traits and behaviours?
10. What is moral leadership?
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 274.

43. For Critical Thinking
1. Develop an example where you apply path-goal theory.
2. Reconcile path-goal theory and substitutes for leadership.
3. What kind of activities could a full-time college or university student pursue that might lead to the perception that he or she is a charismatic leader? In pursuing those activities, what might the student do to enhance this perception of being charismatic?
4. Based on the low representation of women in upper management, to what extent do you think that organizations should actively promote women into the senior ranks of management?
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 274.

44. Breakout Group Exercises
Form small groups to discuss the following:
1. Identify an example of someone you thought was a good leader. What traits did they have? How did these traits differ from someone you identify as a bad leader?
2. Identify a situation when you were in a leadership position (in a group, in the workplace, within your family, etc.) To what extent were you able to use a contingency approach to leadership? What made that easier or more difficult for you?
3. When you’ve worked in student groups, how frequently have leaders emerged in the group? What difficulties occur when leaders are leading peers? Are there ways to overcome these difficulties?
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 277.

45. Concepts to Skills: Practising to Be Charismatic
Project a powerful, confident, and dynamic presence
Articulate an overarching goal
Communicate high-performance expectations and confidence in others’ ability to meet these expectations
Be sensitive to the needs of followers
Material pertinent to this discussion is found on page 281.