The Science of Psychology Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology ©Prentice Hall 2003

What Is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Fields of Psychology Developmental Physiological Experimental Personality Clinical and Counseling Social Industrial and Organizational ©Prentice Hall 2003

Developmental Psychology Studies human mental and physical growth from conception to death Child psychologists Adolescent psychologists Life-span psychologists ©Prentice Hall 2003

Physiological Psychology Investigates the biological basis of human behavior Neuropsychologists Psychobiologists Behavioral geneticists ©Prentice Hall 2003

Experimental Psychology Learning Memory Sensation Perception Cognition Motivation Emotion ©Prentice Hall 2003

Personality Psychology Personality psychologists study the differences among individuals. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Clinical and Counseling Psychology Clinical psychologists are interested primarily in the diagnosis, cause, and treatment of psychological disorders. Counseling psychologists are concerned primarily with “normal” problems of adjustments in life. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Social Psychology Social psychologists study how people influence one another. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Industrial and Organizational Psychology Psychology applied to the workplace I/O psychologists are interested in selecting and training personnel Improving productivity and working conditions The impact of computerization and automation on workers ©Prentice Hall 2003

Enduring Issues in Psychology Person/Situation Nature/Nurture Stability/Change Diversity/Universality Mind/Body ©Prentice Hall 2003

Psychology as Science Scientific method Theory Hypotheses ©Prentice Hall 2003

Scientific Method An approach to knowledge that relies on a systematic method of generating hypotheses, collecting data, and explaining the data. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Theory The systematic explanation of a phenomenon. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Hypothesis A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Goals of Psychology Describe Explain Predict Control or Influence behavior ©Prentice Hall 2003

The Growth of Psychology ©Prentice Hall 2003

The "New Psychology:" A Science of the Mind Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, people have wondered and written about human behavior and mental processes. During the late 1800s, they began to apply the scientific method to questions that had puzzled philosophers for centuries. Psychology came into being as a formal, scientific discipline separate from philosophy. ©Prentice Hall 2003

The History of Psychology The history of psychology can be divided into three main stages: The emergence of a science of the mind The behaviorist decade And the "cognitive revolution" ©Prentice Hall 2003

Structuralism: Wundt and Titchener Structuralism was concerned with identifying the units of conscious experience. 1879: Wundt founds psychology’s first laboratory at Leipzig. Titchener subdivided consciousness into physical sensations, feelings, and images. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Functionalism: William James Functionalism was concerned with the ongoing use of conscious experience. James argued that consciousness cannot be broken into elements. James coined the phrase “stream of consciousness.” ©Prentice Hall 2003

Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Psychology Freud focused on the unconscious determinants of behavior. Freud developed a method of therapy called psychoanalysis. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Behaviorism: Watson and Skinner Behaviorism is only concerned with behavior that can be observed and measured. Watson founded behaviorism. Skinner focused on the role of reinforcement. ©Prentice Hall 2003

The Cognitive Revolution Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka were interested in tricks of perception. The Gestalt movement was concerned with the perception of “good form.” Coined the phrase “the whole is not equal to the sum of its parts.” ©Prentice Hall 2003

Existential and Humanistic Existentialism is concerned with alienation and apathy in modern life. Humanism is concerned with helping people realize their full potential. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Cognitive Psychology Concerned with memory, thinking, language, learning, decision making Expanded the concept of “behavior” to include thoughts, feelings, and states of consciousness ©Prentice Hall 2003

Evolutionary Psychology Concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental processes Their adaptive value and the purposes they continue to serve ©Prentice Hall 2003

Positive Psychology Focuses on positive experiences Looks for a positive relationship between positive emotions and physical health Identifies the factors that allow individuals, communities and societies to flourish. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Multiple Perspectives Today Contemporary psychologists tend to see different perspectives as complimentary. Most agree that the field advances with the addition of new evidence to support or challenge existing theories. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Feminist Psychology The most important research findings from the past were based on all-male samples. Gender difference studies tend to focus on the extremes of gender differences. Many issues that were not important to male researchers were not studied. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Sexual Orientation Origins of sexual orientation Brain differences between heterosexual and homosexual men Impact of gays and lesbians serving in the military ©Prentice Hall 2003

Race and Ethnicity Most ethnic minorities are still underrepresented among the ranks of psychologists. New APA programs are in place to attract ethnic-minority students to psychology. Psychologists have developed a better appreciation for the unique challenges faced by individuals from various ethnic backgrounds. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Culture Culture provides modes of thinking, acting, and communicating about how the world works and why people behave as they do Culture influences Beliefs and ideals Interpretation of the meaning of natural events, human actions and life itself. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Research Methods in Psychology ©Prentice Hall 2003

Research Methods Naturalistic Observation Case Studies Surveys Correlational Research Experimental Research ©Prentice Hall 2003

Naturalistic Observation Observing and recording the behavior of humans or animals in their natural environment ©Prentice Hall 2003

Naturalistic Observation Advantages can observe what occurs before and after target behavior insight into the important factors to study no artificiality of the laboratory ©Prentice Hall 2003

Naturalistic Observation Disadvantages less control over variables cannot imply causality observer bias and subject reactivity target behavior only occurs once ©Prentice Hall 2003

Case Studies Intensive description and analysis of a single individual or just a few individuals. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Case Studies Advantages rich description of an individual each individual serves as own control no large groups of participants no random assignment ©Prentice Hall 2003

Case Studies Disadvantages generalizability is decreased by small sample size the individual being studied may be an exception observer bias ©Prentice Hall 2003

Surveys A research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are administered to a selected group of people. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Surveys Advantages large quantity of information relatively inexpensive ©Prentice Hall 2003

Surveys Disadvantages respondents may not be representative response biases truthfulness of responses ©Prentice Hall 2003

Correlational Research A research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Correlational Research Advantages description and prediction possible ©Prentice Hall 2003

Correlational Research Disadvantages no control over variables cannot imply causality ©Prentice Hall 2003

Experimental Method A research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Experimental Research Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to test its effects Dependent variable: The variable that is measured to see how it is changed by the independent variable ©Prentice Hall 2003

Experimental Research Experimental group: The group subjected to a change in the independent variable Control group: The group not subjected to a change in the independent variable ©Prentice Hall 2003

Experimental Research Advantages conclusions about causality can be made ©Prentice Hall 2003

Experimental Research Disadvantages more ethical considerations behavior is constrained to laboratory ©Prentice Hall 2003

Importance of Sampling Sample: Selection of cases from a larger population Random sample: Each potential participant has an equal chance of being selected Representative sample: The characteristics of the participants corresponds closely to the characteristics of the larger population ©Prentice Hall 2003

Ethics and Psychology ©Prentice Hall 2003

APA Ethical Guidelines For Human Subjects Informed consent must be documented Awareness of possible risks Limitations on confidentiality specified Limitations on the use of deception Equitable alternatives must be offered if course credit is given for participation ©Prentice Hall 2003

APA Ethical Guidelines For Animal Subjects Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, and humane treatment.” Animals may not be subjected to “pain, stress, or privation” when an alternative procedure is available. ©Prentice Hall 2003

Careers in Psychology Opportunities in the mental health field depend on one's degree of training. Psychiatrist which requires medical training; Clinical psychologist, which involves getting a doctoral degree; Counseling psychologist and social worker. ©Prentice Hall 2003