EARLY SOCIETIES OF MESOAMERICA

Possible Migration Routes: indians are not only asians Genetic Evidence DNA evidence indicates several different sources to Amerindian DNA Route 1: The Bering Land Bridge Asian migration across a land bridge from Asia Lower sea levels made this possible, probably route through glaciers Migration due to hunter-gatherers following game Route 2: Sea-based migration down coasts of Western Americas Strong evidence of Paleolithic sea-based migration in Asia Would explain how humans bypassed ice, barriers Currents would drive ancient sea-farers down coast Route 3: The Ancestors of the Polynesians Early humans settled Southeast Asia and Australia by boats and sea routes They island hopped across Pacific to South America Would account for older archaeological remains in South America Route 4: Sea-based Migration across North Atlantic Early humans from Europe followed islands, ice pack of ice shelf DNA in Great Lakes area indicates someone from Europe migrated to this region Route 5: Across the narrow passage from Africa to South America Would presuppose a sea-based migration No DNA evidence so far to suggest this route

Paleolithic Migrations To the Americas

What Blood Types Tell Us B Allele Highest occurrence is in Central Asia Lowest in the Americas/Australia Relatively high frequency pockets in Africa B is the rarest ABO blood allele in Americas A Allele Highest found in small, unrelated populations in Americas Absent among Central/South American Indians. O Blood Type Very common around the world High in Indians of Central/South America (around 100%) Also relatively high among Australian Aborigines High in Europe (in populations with Celtic ancestors) Lowest frequency found in Eastern Europe, Central Asia Conclusion Diego Negative All Africans, Europeans, East Indians, Australian Aborigines, and Polynesians are Diego negative. Diego Positive The only populations with Diego positive people may be Native Americans (2-46%) and East Asians (3-12%). This nonrandom distribution pattern fits well with the hypothesis of an East Asian origin for native Americans. Also supports conclusion that most Amerindians in Meso-America, the Caribbean, and South America have a common origin.

Waves of Migration Blood Groups Patterns Use Haplogroups Shows four waves Patterns First Wave c. 20-13,000 years ago Patagonians, Fuegians Pericu of Baja California Second Wave c. 12,000 years ago Amerindians Third Wave c. 10,000 years ago Na-Dene Amerinds Fourth Wave c. 6,000 years ago Aleut, Eskimo

The First Americans Patagonians and Fuegians Lacked A, B, N Mitochondrial DNA common to Amerindians Clearly the first to arrive as they lacked DNA common to northerners Arrived between 13-20 thousand years ago Extensive DNA Study 1-2 different migration waves in peopling of southern South America. Three hunter-gatherer groups from Tierra del Fuego cluster together Mesa Verde, Chile Remains dated from 30,000 BCE to c. 12,000 BCE Indicates earlier arrival date that previously thought Suggests migration by canoe from SE Asia, Australia Land-living Ona (Selk’nam) Called Foot Indians: split off from ancestral Patagonian group Gave rise to the Tehuelche: Confined to Tierra del Fuego Walked around naked when Europeans discovered them Boat Oriented Yamana and Kawesgar Distant relatives who split off 6,000 years ago Use boat technology identical to oldest known to man

The Na-Dene Amerindians Arrived 10,000 Years Ago Likely route was by sea-route and boats, the by foot Closest relatives are the Aleut and Inuit-Eskimo Groups tend to be clanish and clickish First settlements Settled in Taiga area of Alaska, Northwest America Athabaskan-Eyak Indians (Interior Regions) Haida and Tlingit Coastal Indians of Alaska’s Panhandle Hunter-gatherer-fisher Natural Highways of Migration Yukon River Great Slave Lake, Great Bear Lake River Systems Later Migration Languages are clear indication of migration Aspects of languages are unique to Amerindians Clusters exist in Canada and United States distant from main areas Coastal Na-Dene of Pacific Northwest New Mexico and Texas Navaho (Pueblo Indians) of New Mexico, Arizona Came to practice extensive agriculture Likely descendants of Anazsi civilization All Apache Indians Originally hunter-gatherers Later become horse nomads after 1492

Largest Group: Amerind Came From Asia Mitochondrial DNA indicates Likely Asian origin Two likely routes Down the West Coast of the Americas Across central regions of North America Creation myths Tell of a variety of originations of their respective peoples. Sometimes people were "always there” Other times humans were created by gods or animals Some migrated from a specified compass point Others came from "across the ocean“ Geographic Distribution of Languages Indicates waves of migration Indicates clusters of similar, related settlers in a given area

Amerindian Language Families

The Last to Arrive Aleuts of Alaska Inuit (Eskimo) of Arctic Very close relatives exist in Arctic Asia DNA/Blood Types identical to North Asians Languages have close Asian relatives Arrived 6000 years ago Ice-Age had ended long ago Migratory Hunter-Gatherers Seasonal hunters of sea lion, whales, walrus Followed game across northern coasts Settled Arctic area all the way to Greenland Still today semi-nomadic Tended to inhabit coastal islands, tundra Stopped penetration at forests of north

What about “Europeans”? The Solutrean Hypothesis Suggests an early Cro-Magnon migration into the America DNA Evidence exists Technological Remains Lack of certain archeological remains Stone tool technology of Solutreans in prehistoric Europe May have later influenced the development of the Clovis tool-making culture Clovis spear points found all throughout North America Strong similarities between Solutrean and Clovis toolmaking styles No predecessors of Clovis Technology in Eastern Asia, Siberia, or Berinigia Probable Migration Came From Ice Age Europe probably by boat like Eskino (Inuit) hunt By way of British Isles, Iceland, Greenland – island hopping Which Amerindians? Paleo-Indians who produced the Clovis Point in North America Some Indians from Great Lakes have European mitochondrial DNA

THE FACE OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN Inuit Aleut Incan Fuegian

EARLY PRE-HISTORY Migration to Mesoamerica Humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska, 40,000 years ago Probably came in search of big game By 7000 B.C.E., reached southern-most part of South America As hunting became difficult, agriculture began, 7500 B.C.E. Modern theorists question Bering Strait migration Early agriculture in Mesoamerica Valley of Mexico was first center of agriculture Beans, chili peppers, avocados, squashes, gourds cultivated By 5000 B.C.E., discovered potential of maize, the staple food Later, developed tomatoes Agricultural villages appeared after 3000 B.C.E. No large animals, no wheeled vehicles Ceremonial centers, by the end of the 2nd millennium B.C.E.

Migration in Meso-America A common them in legends, writings of Pre-Columbian Age Linguistic distributions clearly show migration In Mesoamerica Commoners required to migrate seasonally to labor on lands of Nobility, state, religious centers People exited from existing communities to establish new ones Quite common amongst tribes of both continents Major way new tribes were formed Dynastic Migration Ruling elites are said to have come from somewhere else They migrate, take over and assimilate into the society Migrations from town to town were common Often accompanied a change in status or wealth Rapid growth of cities Shows that numbers migrated from rural to urban Common in the Mayans Northern Mesoamerica semi-nomadic groups moved almost daily People captured in war were forced to migrate as captives

The Linguistic Matrix

THE OLMECS Olmecs: The "rubber people" Olmec society Earliest center, on the coast of Mexico Gulf, 1200 B.C.E. The other two later centers: La Venta and Tres Zapotes Olmec society Authoritarian in nature Colossal heads – possibly rulers Power shown in pyramid construction Trade in jade and obsidian Decline and fall of Olmec society The cause remains a mystery Olmecs destroyed ceremonial centers Most likely, civil conflict ruined their society By 400 B.C.E., other societies eclipsed the Olmecs Influence of Olmec traditions Maize, ceremonial centers were common to later societies Other legacies: Calendar, rituals of human sacrifice, ballgame Olmecs did not leave written records

OLMEC ART

TEOTIHUACAN The city of Teotihuacan Teotihuacan society Built in the highlands of Mexico Colossal pyramids of sun and moon dominated the skyline Between 400 and 600 C.E., the city had 200,000 inhabitants Paintings and murals reflect the importance of priests Teotihuacan society Rulers and priests dominated society Two-thirds of inhabitants worked in fields Famous for obsidian tools, orange pottery Professional merchants traded widely No sign of military organization Cultural traditions Inherited Olmecs' culture Honored earth god, rain god Decline of Teotihuacan Military pressure from other peoples since 500 C.E. Began to decline 650 C.E.; Invaders sacked city, mid-8th century

TEOTIHUACAN THE CITY

Teotihuacan and Tula among the Maya Mayan Origins Original home: southern Mexico, Yucatan, Central America Tikal: 600-900 CE expanded from Belize into Yucatan, Mexico Evidence that a group, its ideas (Teotihuacan?) migrated into area to establish states Toltec Origins Several lineages such as Cocom, Xiu, Itza were called dzulob or foreigners Chronicles of Chilam Balam kept by villages indicate this origin Founders had special knowledge that gave them right to establish a state Many leaders recorded in Mayan records for 700 years but had Nahua names Popul Vu and Chronicles of Cakchiquels Show migration as common in region and in founding of cities in area Indicate Nahua or Tolan connections Teotihuacan Influences Use of aspects of Teotihuacan writing and phraseology suddenly appear in Mayan In 378 CE in Mayan Long Count, Tikal conquered Uaxacatun A stella erected to commemorate the event: its iconography is from Teotihuacan After that the iconography occurs in other Mayan stella Chichen Itza Early founders are clearly Toltec Could have been an indication of Toltec invasion of the area

EARLY GEOGRAPHY

The Mayans

THE MAYA The Maya Tikal Maya warfare Chichén Itzá Maya decline Earliest heir of the Olmecs, lived in highlands of Guatemala Kaminaljuyú, a ceremonial center, but not a full-fledged city Teotihuacan became dominant during the 4th century C.E. After the 4th century, society flourished in lowlands Besides maize, also cultivated cotton and cacao Tikal Most important Maya political center, 300 to 900 C.E. A bustling city of 40,000 people Enormous plazas, scores of temples, pyramids, palaces Maya warfare Victorious warriors won enormous prestige War captives became slaves or sacrificial victims to gods Chichén Itzá Rose as a power by the 9th century Organized a loose empire in the northern Yucatan Maya decline Began in 800 C.E., the Mayas (except in Chichén Itzá) deserted their cities Causes of decline remain unclear

MAYAN SOCIETY Maya society The Maya calendar Maya writing Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top Merchants were from the ruling class, served also as ambassadors Professional architects and artisans were important Peasants and slaves were majority of population The Maya calendar Maya priests understood planetary cycles and could predict eclipses Besides the solar year, also had a ritual year of 260 days and 20 months Combined attributes of two calendars determined the fortune of activities Maya writing Contained both ideographic elements and symbols for syllables Maya scribes used writing extensively Only four books survived the destruction by Spanish conquerors The Maya ballgame Played by two individuals or two teams Very popular, every ceremonial center had stone-paved courts

MAYAN RELIGION Religious thought Gods maintained agricultural cycles Popol Vuh, a Maya creation myth Gods created humans out of maize and water Gods maintained agricultural cycles Gods placated Exchanged for honors and sacrifices Priests interpreted calendars Bloodletting rituals Most important rituals, to honor the gods for rains Sacrificing captives let to many wars for victims Also voluntary bloodshedding

MAYAN TRADE Mayan Weaving

EARLY Migrations in Central Mexico c. 800 Chichimeca and Nonoalca Migrated into valley; may have sacked Teotihuacan Created Tulan Empire, a militaristic state After fall of Tula, Tolteca people became migratory 987 CE conquer or found Maya city of Chichen Itza Chichimecs were nomadic wanders in Central Mexico Tolteca and Chichimeca became progenitors of later royal dynasties Quetzalcoatl was a prince of Tula, perhaps a god worshipped by Toltecs Either the hero was deified or the god’s worship spread It spread throughout Mesoamerica including the Maya as Kukulcan Michoacan Tarascan monarchy looked back to Chichimeca They had settled among the lake dwellers The Michoaque or Tarascans are linked with the Nahua and Otomi Toltec ancestry different from Chichimec

TOLTECS AND TULA Toltecs Tula Toltec decline Quetzalcoatl Collapse of Teotihuacan in central Mexico, 9th to 10th century Toltecs migrated to central Mexico about the 8th century Established large state, powerful army from mid-10th to 12th century Tula Capital city of Toltecs Center of weaving, pottery, obsidian work Close relations with societies of coast, Yucatan Toltec decline Civil strife at Tula, beginning in 1125 Nomadic incursion of 1175 End of 12th c., no longer powerful Quetzalcoatl Originally a human prince of Tula, dedicated to his people Tricked, driven from power Gradually became a hero, god in struggle with evil deities

The Mythical Migration of Roots Aztecs or Mexica Migration of the Aztecs from the north towards Mexico valley Began c. 1000 CE; reached Central Valley c. 1250 CE Glorifying their Chichimec ancestry The Aztec rulers chose a member of the Colhua royal family, Acamapichtli He became their first emperor (tlatoani) after the foundation of Tenochtitlan The Aztecs Circular Migration Sometimes it starts in Basin of Mexico at Colhuacan Means the “Place of the Owners of Grandfathers” Often disguised as Teo- (true) Colhuacan Aztlan Situated on an island in a lake like Lake Texcoco Duran, Spanish Chronicler records Mexica account Moteuczoma sent envoys to locate Chicomoztoc, Colhuacan His accounts indicate a primitive, idyllic version of Tenochtitlan Account indicates Aztecs could not go back after “fall from grace”

EARLY AZTECS The Mexica The Aztec empire Tribute and trade Known as Aztecs, arrived in central Mexico about mid-13th century Tough people, wandering, fighting for century in central Mexico Settled at Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) about 1345 Plentiful food supplies and chinampas by Lake Texcoco The Aztec empire Military campaigns against neighboring societies, mid-15th century Conquered and colonized Oaxaco in southwestern Mexico Made alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan Empire ruled 12 million people and most of Mesoamerica Tribute and trade Tribute obligations were very oppressive Empire had no bureaucracy or administration Allies did not have standing army Tribute from 489 subject territories Tribute flowed into Tenochtitlan

AZTEC WORLD

MEXICA SOCIETY Warriors Mexica women Priests Cultivators and slaves Military elite at top of rigid social hierarchy Mostly from the Mexica aristocracy Enjoyed great wealth, honor, and privileges Mexica women No public role, but enjoyed high honor as mothers of warriors Honor of bearing children was equal to that of capturing enemies in battle Priests Ranked among the Mexica elite; specialized in calendrical and ritual lore Advisers to Mexica rulers, occasionally, became supreme rulers themselves Cultivators and slaves Cultivators worked on chinampas (small plots of reclaimed land) Often worked on aristocrats‘ land Paid tribute and provided labor service for public works Large number of slaves, worked as domestic servants Craftsmen and merchants Skilled craftsmen enjoyed some prestige Tenuous position of merchants: Supplied exotic goods and military intelligence Under suspicion as greedy profiteers

MEXICA RELIGION Mexica gods Tezcatlipoca: giver/taker of life, patron deity of warriors Quetzalcóatl: supporter of arts, crafts, and agriculture Ritual bloodletting: common to all Mesoamericans Huitzilopochtli: the war god Human sacrifice encouraged by devotion to Huitzilopochtli Large temple at the center of Tenochtitlan Hundreds of thousands sacrificed to this war god Rivalry between Huitzilpochtli, Quetzalcoatl Quetzalcoatl protector of humans Tricked by some gods, fall from grace Driven into exile with promise to return

Caribbean Migrations The Saladoids Arawak and Carib Indians Arawak Migrated c. 6000 BCE to islands Known by the style of the pottery they made Ancestors of the Taino Arawak and Carib Indians Arawak Migrated from north coast of South America c. 1000 CE Settled the islands of the Caribbean Largely peaceful, traded with other islands, mainland Carib Originated in the Orinoco Area Language indicate they migrated from interior of Brazil Master boat builders, sailors Traded goods for gold, silver of mainland Very warlike and aggressive

EARLY ANDEAN SOCIETY Geography Early migration Impacted north-south movement and communication Created micro-cultures – small cultures isolated within region Early migration By 12,000 B.C.E. hunter-gathers reached South America By 8000 B.C.E. began to experiment with agriculture Complex societies appeared in central Andean region 1000 B.C.E. Andean societies located in modern day Peru and Bolivia Early agriculture in South America Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests By 1800 B.C.E., produced pottery, Temples and pyramids appeared

CHAVIN AND MOCHE The Chavín Cult Complexity of Andean society Very popular around 900 to 800 B.C.E. Vanished completely by about 300 B.C.E. Cult was probably related to introduction of maize Cult left large temple complexes and elaborate art works Complexity of Andean society Techniques of producing cotton textiles and fishing nets Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy Cities began to appear shortly after Chavíncult Early Andeans did not make use of writing Mochica (300-700 C.E.) One of several early Andean states, located in northern Peru Mochica ceramics: lives of different social classes Mochica did not integrate the whole Andean region

ANDEAN GEOGRAPHY

COMING OF THE INCA After Chavin and Moche Chucuito Chimu Several regional states dominated Andean South America All built upon previous accomplishments, civilizations Chucuito Chucuito dominated highlands around Lake Titicaca Cultivation of potatoes, herding llamas and alpacas Traded with lower valleys, chewed coca leaves Chimu Powerful kingdom in lowlands of Peru Arose prior to mid-15th century Extensive Irrigation networks Cultivation of maize and sweet potatoes Capital city at Chanchan, massive brick buildings

THE INCA The Inca empire Cuzco and Machu Picchu Inca roads Settled first around Lake Titicaca among other peoples Ruler Pachacuti launched campaigns against neighbors, 1438 Built a huge empire stretching 4000 kilometers from north to south Ruled the empire with military and administrative elite Inca bureaucrats relied on quipu Mnemonic aid made of an array of small cords to keep track of information Cuzco and Machu Picchu Capital of the Inca: had 300,000 people in the late 15th century Machu Picchu hidden in mountain, jungles: last retreat of Inca Inca roads Two major roads linked the south and north Runners carried messages across empire Paved with stone, shaded by trees Supported centralized government, facilitated spread of Quechua

INCA MAP

INCA SOCIETY Trade The chief ruler Aristocrats and priests Peasants No large merchant class Incas bartered agricultural surplus locally Not much specialization The chief ruler Chief ruler was viewed as descended from the sun In theory, the god-king owned everything on earth After death, mummified rulers became intermediaries with gods Aristocrats and priests Aristocrats enjoyed fine food, embroidered clothes, and wore ear spools Priests led celibate and ascetic lives, very influential figures Peasants Delivered portion of their products to bureaucrats Besides supporting ruling classes, revenue also used for famine relief Provided heavy labor (mita) for public works Society ruled as a socialist type centralized state

INCA RELIGION Inca gods: Inti and Viracocha Moral thought Venerated sun god called Inti Considered other natural forces divine Also honored the creator god, Viracocha Sacrifices of animals, agricultural products, not humans Moral thought Concept of sin Violation of established order Concept of after-death Punishment and reward Rituals of absolving sins Through confession, penance

The Inca Emergence, c. 1200 CE Wide-ranging Expansion, 1438 CE Emerged in the area of Cuzco Originated as city-state, small population Wide-ranging Expansion, 1438 CE Significance of Conquest, Expansion Each Inca had to conquer land, goods Booty became treasury for mortuary temple No conquest, no treasure, lousy temple to gods Movements Transportation Empire was linked by roads and royal runners Roads used to transport goods to and from capital, store houses Social Movement Local nobles educated in capital and returned to lands to rule Local nobles sent tribute to Inca’s capital Labor Movement Mita: each village owed specific number of laborers, days to Inca Workers moved to work on projects for the Inca Mita also provided soldiers to the Incas armies to expand the state

Ayllu & Mitmaq as Colonies All Inca divided into social groups Kinship groups spread across geography Each Ayllu Claimed land at different elevations This insured a variety of produce Grazing land within ayllu held in common Farming land given to families based on size Conquered peoples had their own ayllus similarly structured Mitmaq Inca colonies Each ayllu contributed people Relocated to new territories Each new mitmaq required to bring lands under cultivation Each mitmaq served as a garrison to control new lands Each mitmaq spoke Quechua, Amyara, the Incan languages

Quechua Shows Colonization

INDIGENOUS AMERICAN CULTURAL REGIONS

SOCIETIES OF THE NORTH Pueblo and Navajo societies Iroquois peoples Two large settled societies in the contemporary American southwest By about 700 C.E., began to build stone and adobe buildings Iroquois peoples Agricultural society in the woodlands east of the Mississippi River Five Iroquois nations emerged from Swasco society, 1400 C.E. Women were in charge of Iroquois villages and longhouses Mound-building peoples Built earthen mounds throughout eastern North America Mounds used for ceremonies, rituals, dwelling, burial sites Showed influence of contacts with Mesoamericans, Mayans Cahokia The largest mound at Cahokia, Illinois 15-38,000 people lived in Cahokia society, c. 12th century Burial sites reveal existence of social classes and trade

American Southwest The Anasazi Descendents Nomadic Hunter Gathers became Sedentary farmers Semi-permanent farming villages later arose with extensive trade Settlements linked by extensive pedestrian roads like Inca roads Original trade goods were surplus foods Area lacks trees, metals, etc. for which Anasazi traded food, finished goods Trade goods from the Great Basin, North Mexico, Pacific, Mississippi area Many trade goods (copper, feathers) from Central Mexico Mined turquoise for trade to Mesoamerica 300 Year Great Drought c. 1200 forced abandonment of towns Semi-sedentary, farming an area for 30 years and migrating to new site Environmental stress could have weakened civilization Area had thin soil, little water so overfarming relatively easy Internal conflict, invasion by new nomads likely cause of migration Descendents Likely Descendents: Hopi, Navajo, Zuni Pueblo Indians have similar building techniques, farming, pottery They also had trade contacts with Mesoamerica

The Anasazi & Movement Archaeology and Space Age Technology have revealed an extensive network of roads

GEOGRAPHIC MAP