Airport Lighting Brett Malloy Left Photo: http://www.osram.com/osram_com/applications/airfield-lighting/runway/index.jsp Middle Photo: http://safetycompass.wordpress.com/2012/06/19/lighting-the-way-for-safety/ Right Photo: http://www.airport-ops-servs.com/pages/index.html Brett Malloy An Equal Opportunity University

Overview Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface General Guidelines Approach Lighting Visual Approach Slope Aids Threshold Lighting Runway Lighting Taxiway Lighting

General Guidelines Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface White Lights: Runway Surface Edges Runway Surface Centerline Runway Centerline on Approach Landing Zone Runway Approach Distance Visual Approach Slope Aid (Nearest Runway Threshold) Red Lights: Runway Edges on Approach Runway Threshold in Opposite Direction (Wrong Direction) End of Runway in Direction of Operation Visual Approach Slope Aid (Farthest from Runway Threshold) Green Lights: Runway Threshold Blue Lights: Taxiways Yellow Lights: Areas of Caution

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Intensity: Higher intensity is required for approach lighting systems (ALS). For visual range of 2000 to 2500 feet, outermost approach lights should be 200,000 cd 100-500 cd for approach lights closer to threshold -cd = candela (measure of luminous intensity, power emitted by light source) -200,000 cd was determined by conducting tests in foggy conditions. -Outermost approach lights refer to those farthest from the runway. -Approach lights near the threshold are those closest to runway.

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface System Configuration: Several Types: Calvert System ICAO Category II and Category III System High-Intensity Approach Light Systems (ALSF-2 and ALSF-1) Medium-intensity Approach Light System (MALSR, MALSF, and MALS) -Calvert System was developed in Great Britain and is used primarily in Europe and other parts of the world. -ICAO is internationally accepted for operations with poor visibility (Category II or III visibility) -FAA has adopted the various high-intensity ALS systems and medium-intensity ALS systems for use in the United States.

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Calvert System: 3000 feet in length Series of single-bulb lights spaced on 100-ft intervals along extended runway centerline Six transverse crossbars of lights spaced on 500-ft centers Length of transverse rows diminishes as aircraft nears runway. -Photo: Figure 13-5, Page 643 in textbook. --Spacing for each light in a bar of lights is 10’ from center to center, as specified by FAA Airfield Standards.

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface ICAO Category I and Category II System Two lines of red bars on each side of runway at 30-m intervals extending out 300 m from runway Single line of white bars on runway centerline at 30-m intervals extending out 300 m from runway Two longer bars of white light at distances of 150 m and 300 m from runway Long bar of green light at runway threshold Also, it is recommended that long bars of white light be placed at 450 m, 500 m and 750 m from runway centerline. -Used in poor visibility (category I and category II) -ICAO system applies only to inner 300 m of the system closest to runway threshold. -Remaining 600 m is unaffected, and Calvert system or US systems can be used for this segment. -The recommended placement of white lights at 450, 500, and 750 m is used only if runway centerline lights extend out this far. -Spacing for each light in a bar of lights is 10’ from center to center, as specified by FAA Airfield Standards.

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface ICAO Category I and Category II Systems: -Photo: Figure 13-6, Page 643 in textbook

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface High-Intensity ALS ALSF-1 Long transverse white light crossbar located 1000 feet from runway, 100 feet in width with 21 lights 2400-3000 feet long Sequenced high-intensity flashing lights located every 100 feet on extended runway centerline for outermost 1400 feet 14-ft crossbars of five-bulb white light placed at 100-ft intervals for a distance of 2400-3000 from runway Long bar of green light at runway threshold, extending 2-10 feet outward from runway and 45 feet outside of runway edge on each side Two additional five-bulb crossbars of red light placed symmetrically about runway centerline at a distance of 100 feet from runway to delineate edge of runway Two additional three-bulb red light crossbars along runway centerline at 200 feet from runway -14-ft crossbars of white bulbs are closely spaced to give illusion of one continuous bar of light. -One major difference between high-intensity ALS and medium intensity ALS is that the 14-ft crossbars are placed at 100-ft intervals in high-intensity, while they are placed At 200-ft intervals in medium intensity. -Difference between High-intensity ALSF-1 and ALSF-2, ALSF-2 is required for category II and III precision-instrument approaches. -Also, slight variation in lighting configuration in innermost 1000 feet from runway. -Generally, spacing of bulbs on light bars in this configuration is 5’, with exception of 14-ft crossbars. -Source: FAA.gov

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface High-Intensity ALS ALSF-2 Long transverse white light crossbar located 1000 feet from runway, 100 feet in width with 21 lights 2400-3000 feet long Sequenced high-intensity flashing lights located every 100 feet on extended runway centerline for outermost 1400 feet 14-ft crossbars of five-bulb white light placed at 100-ft intervals for a distance of 2400-3000 from runway Long bar of green light at runway threshold, extending 2-10 feet outward from runway and 45 feet outside of runway edge on each side Two additional three or four-bulb crossbars of white light placed symmetrically about runway centerline at a distance of 500 feet from runway, with 5-ft spacing Additional three-bulb red light crossbars placed symmetrically about runway centerline at 100-ft intervals extending 1000 feet from runway -14-ft crossbars of white bulbs are closely spaced to give illusion of one continuous bar of light. -One major difference between high-intensity ALS and medium intensity ALS is that the 14-ft crossbars are placed at 100-ft intervals in high-intensity, while they are placed At 200-ft intervals in medium intensity. -Difference between High-intensity ALSF-1 and ALSF-2, ALSF-2 is required for category II and III precision-instrument approaches. -Also, slight variation in lighting configuration in innermost 1000 feet from runway. -Generally, spacing of bulbs on light bars in this configuration is 5’, with exception of 14-ft crossbars. -Source: FAA.gov

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface ALSF-1: ALSF-2: -Top Photo: Figure 13-7b, Page 645 in textbook. -Bottom Photo: Figure 13-7a, Page 645 in textbook.

-ALSF-2 Approach Lighting -Photo: http://hmiduluth.com/airportals.html -Duluth International Airport, Duluth, MN

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Medium-Intensity ALS MALSR 2400 feet long Divided into two sections： Inner 1000 feet is medium-intensity ALS portion , outer 1400 feet is RAIL portion of system. RAIL = runway alignment indicator lights 14-ft crossbars of five-bulb white lights placed at 200-ft intervals extending from runway centerline for a distance of 2400 feet from runway Two additional 20-ft crossbars of five-bulb white lights placed at 1000 feet from runway, spaced symmetrically outside of 14-ft crossbar forming a 70-ft single crossbar Additional sequential flashing lights for outermost 1000 feet Green threshold lights extending 10 feet outward from runway, and 10 feet outside of runway edge on each side -Primary difference between MALSR and MALSF system is that the MALSR system is shorter in length. -Also, in MALSF system, sequential flashers replace runway alignment indicator lights. -More economical for smaller airports to use MALSF system. -Sequential flashers help for pilot to distinguish runway approach lights from distracting lights in the vicinity of the airport. -Spacing for bulbs on centerline crossbars is 40.5”, while rest of bulb spacing is 5’. -MALSR system is recommended for category I precision-instrument approaches. -The MALSF System is primarily used at smaller airports where precision-instrument approaches are not required. -SSALR system (Simplified Short Approach Lighting System) uses the same configuration as MALSR. -MALSF = Medium-Intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequential Flashers -MALSR= Medium-Intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights -MASL system also used. It is similar in configuration to MALSF, but does not have runway alignment indicator lights, or sequential flashers. -Source: FAA.gov

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Medium-Intensity ALS MALSF 1400 feet long 12.5-ft crossbars of five-bulb white light placed at 200-ft intervals extending from runway centerline for a distance of 1400 feet from runway Sequence flashers replace runway alignment indicator lights. Sequential flashing lights for outermost 400 feet, located at final three crossbar stations Two additional five-bulb white light crossbars placed 1000 feet from runway, spaced symmetrically outside of 12.5-ft crossbar forming a single 66-ft crossbar Green threshold lights extending 10 feet outward from runway, and 10 feet outside of runway edge on each side --Primary difference between MALSR and MALSF system is that the MALSR system is shorter in length. -Also, in MALSF system, sequential flashers replace runway alignment indicator lights. -More economical for smaller airports to use MALSF system. -Sequential flashers help for pilot to distinguish runway approach lights from distracting lights in the vicinity of the airport. -Bulb spacing is approximately 2.5’ on each crossbar in MALSF configuration. -MALSR system is recommended for category I precision-instrument approaches. -The MALSF System is primarily used at smaller airports where precision-instrument approaches are not required. -SSALR system (Simplified Short Approach Lighting System) uses the same configuration as MALSR. -MALSF = Medium-Intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequential Flashers -MALSR= Medium-Intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights -MASL system also used. It is similar in configuration to MALSF, but does not have runway alignment indicator lights, or sequential flashers. -Source: FAA.gov

Approach Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface MALSR: MALSF: -Top Photo: Figure 13-7c, Page 646 in textbook. -Bottom Photo: Figure 13-7d, Page 646 in textbook.

-MALSR Approach Lighting -Photo: http://www.rpi.edu/about/inside/issue/v6n14/lrc.html

Visual-Approach Slope Aids Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Visual-Approach Slope Aids Visual-Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) Used primarily to aid pilots in defining desired glide path during approach. Series of light bars running on ground adjacent to the side(s) of the runway Various VASI configurations, based on: Desired Visual Range Type of Aircraft Wide-bodied Aircraft Use -VASI used in relatively good weather. -Bars can be placed on one or both sides of runway. -Bars are made up of one, two, or three light units. These light units are known as boxes.

Visual-Approach Slope Aids Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Visual-Approach Slope Aids Visual-Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) Two types of bars: Downwind bar: Nearest runway threshold; will appear white if pilot is at proper height Upwind Bar: Farthest from runway threshold; will appear red if pilot is at proper height If pilot is too low, both bars will appear red. If pilot is too high, both bars will appear white. -For wide-bodied aircraft, a third upwind bar is added farther down the runway from the runway threshold. In this configuration, the middle bar becomes the downwind bar, while the third bar is used as the upwind bar. The bar closest to the runway threshold is ignored. -This is due mostly to the fact that the eye of the pilot is much higher in large aircraft than in small aircraft.

Visual-Approach Slope Aids Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Visual-Approach Slope Aids Visual-Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) Various Configurations: -Photo: Table 13-1, Page 648 in textbook -Common systems used in United States: VASI-2, VASI-4, VASI-12, and VASI-16. -nmi = nautical mile -1 nmi = approximately 6,076 feet or 1,852 meters

Visual-Approach Slope Aids Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Visual-Approach Slope Aids Visual-Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) General Bar Spacing, VASI-6 configuration: -Photo: Figure 13-8, Page 649 in textbook.

Threshold Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Denotes runway threshold Vital in determining whether pilot will make decision to land or execute a missed approach. Green Lights extending out from runway (2-10’): Lights extend across entire width of runway in large airports. Four green lights are placed on each side of threshold in small airports. Appear green in direction of landing, and appear red in opposite direction to indicate end of runway -At large airports, threshold lights are flush in order to avoid landing airplanes. -At small airports, where threshold lights are adjacent to threshold, they can be elevated because they do not interfere with approach path.

Runway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Runway Edge Lights Generally elevated units Project 30 inches above surface White lights along the edge of runway Not more than 10 feet from edge of pavement Lights in final 2000 feet of instrument runway are yellow to indicate caution. (In direction of operation) Spacing: 200-ft max longitudinal spacing -If runway threshold is displaced by usable taxi or runway areas, edge lights appear red in displaced areas in direction of operations.

Runway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Runway Centerline and Touchdown Lights Installed in Pavement Touchdown zone lights are three-bulb white bars. Located on each side of runway centerline Extend 3000 feet from runway threshold, or one-half the runway length for runways less than 6000 feet long Spaced at 100-ft intervals 36 feet from runway centerline on each side Centerline lights are also white. Spaced at 50-ft intervals Offset 2 feet from runway centerline Change colors in last 3000 feet of runway in direction of operation Last 1000’- Red Next 2000’- Alternate between red and white -Only installed at airports equipped for instrument operations. -Required for category II and category III runways, and for category I runways used for landing operations below 2400-ft runway visual range (RVR). -Centerline lights are required for takeoff operations below 1600-ft RVR, and recommended for category I runways greater than 170-ft wide or when used by aircraft with approach speeds over 140 kn. -Centerline lights are offset from runway centerline to avoid paint and to prevent nose gear from riding over light fixtures. -In cases of displaced thresholds, centerline extends in displaced area. If displaced areas is not used for takeoffs and is less than 700’ long, the centerline lights are blanked out in the direction of landing. For displaced thresholds more than 700’ longs or displaced areas are used for takeoff, the centerline must be capable of being shut off during landing operations.

Runway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Runway Touchdown Light Spacing: -Photo: Figure 13-12, Page 654 in textbook.

Runway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Runway Centerline Light Spacing: -Photo: Figure 13-13, Page 655 in textbook.

-Runway Centerline and Touchdown Zone Lights -Photo: http://www.bristolairfield.co.uk/runways.php -Bristol Airport, Bristol, England

Taxiway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Taxiway Edge Lights Elevated, bidirectional lights Blue Spaced at intervals of 200 feet on each side of the taxiway, with closer spacing on curves Located not more than 10 feet from edge of pavement Extend a maximum of 30 inches above pavement surface -Many times the thrust of large-bodied aircraft impinge on taxiway lights, and often cause damage to the light fixtures. -Pilots have also indicated that taxiway lights are insufficient in delineating lanes.

Taxiway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Taxiway Edge Lights on curved and straight sections: -Photo: Figure 13-14, Page 656 in textbook.

Taxiway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Location of taxiway lights on entrances and exits: -Photo: Figure 13-15, Page 657 in textbook.

Taxiway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Taxiway Centerline Lighting Taxiway centerlines terminate at entrances to runway. At taxiway intersections, the lights continue across. For long-radius high-speed exit taxiways: Taxiway lights extend onto runway from a point 200 feet back from point of curvature of the taxiway to point of tangency of the central curve of the taxiway. In this arrangement, spacing of lights is 50 feet. Lights are offset 2 feet from runway centerline lights. Taxiway-Runway intersections in which planes must hold short of runway, several yellow lights spaced at 5-ft intervals are placed transversely across taxiway. -Many times the thrust of large-bodied aircraft impinge on taxiway lights, and often cause damage to the light fixtures. -Pilots have also indicated that taxiway lights are insufficient in delineating lanes.

Taxiway Lighting Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Taxiway Centerline Light Spacing: -Photo: Table 13-2, Page 658 in textbook.

-Taxiway Lighting -Photo: http://www.airportsinternational.com/2010/03/energy-equations/4-7/

References Characterization of the Ballast-Tie Interface Federal Aviation Administration. A Quick Reference: Airfield Standards, 2nd edition. FAA, October 2011. Web. 14 December 2012. Horonjeff, Rob, and Francis X. Mckelvey. Planning and Design of Airports, 4thedition. Boston: McGraw Hill, 1994. Print.