Syntax: What’s That? Donna-Michelle Copas Glencliff High School

Definition The arrangement and grammatical relation of words, phrases, and clauses in sentences; the ordering of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. In this sense, syntax is an important element of an author’s style.

Ernest Hemingway’s syntax may be said to be fairly simple, with few complex sentences and few modifying elements.

In a More Technical Sense… Syntax refers to the study of the “rules” for forming the grammatical sentences of a language.

Three Components of Grammar Syntax Morphology (the study of the processes of word formation) Phonology (the study of significant speech sounds)

Why Study Syntax??? To improve writing To understand and analyze an author’s achievement of a particular effect And…

Sentence Types/Grammatical Simple (one independent clause) Compound (2 or more IC) Complex (one IC, one or more dependent clauses) Compound-Complex

Kinds of Sentences/ Functional Declarative Interrogative Exclamatory Imperative

Length of the Sentences Telegraphic—shorter than five words in length Medium ---approximately eight words in length Long and Involved (30 plus words)

Emphasis of the Sentence/Rhetorical –Loose or cumulative sentence---makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending OR –main idea is stated at the beginning of the sentence followed by additional information –Example: He resigned after denouncing his accusers and asserting his own innocence time and time again. –Sentence continues after the main idea has been stated.

Emphasis of the Sentence/Rhetorical –Periodic Sentence---makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached OR main idea is withheld until the end of the sentence Example: After denouncing his accusers and asserting his own innocence time and time again, the State Department Official resigned. Main idea is suspended until the end.

Emphasis of the Sentence/Rhetorical Balanced Sentence---phrases or clauses balance each other by likeness of structure, meaning, or length

Order of the Sentence/ Sentence Patterns Natural order of sentence---subject before the predicate Subject-Verb-Complement Inverted order of a sentence--- predicate before the subject Verb-Subject Used for Emphasis****

Order of the Sentence/Sentence Patterns Juxtaposition---poetic and rhetorical device placing normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases next to one another.

Beginnings of Sentences Noun or Subject Transition Subordinating Clauses Prepositional Phrases Participial Phrase Infinitive Adjective

Syntactical Elements Parallel structure---grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of sentences Repetition---words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once Rhetorical question---question that requires no answer Rhetorical fragment---fragment used deliberately for persuasive purpose

Parallelism Structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence He was walking, running, and jumping for joy.

Repetition Words, sounds, and ideas used more than once for enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis “…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth…”

Rhetorical Question A question which expects no answer—used to draw attention to a point, stronger than a direct statement “Shall the blessed sun of heaven prove a micher and eat blackberries? A question not to be ask’d. Shall the son of England prove a thief and take purses? A question to be ask’d.”

Anaphora Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing—grounds, we shall fight in the fields and the streets, we shall fight in the hills.”

Antithesis A contrast used for emphasis “India is a poetic nation, yet it demands new electrical plants. It is a mystical nation, yet it wants new roads.”

Juxtaposition Unassociated ideas, words, or phrases placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise “The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough.”

Asyndeton Deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses “I came. I saw. I conquered.”

Polysyndeton Deliberate use of many conjunctions for special emphasis “The meal was huge—my mother fixed okra and green beans and ham and apple pie and green pickled tomatoes and ambrosia salad and all manner of fine country food..”

Chiasmus Sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal of the first “Ask not what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country.”

Epistrophe The same word is repeated at the end of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. “I believe we should fight for justice. You believe we should fight for justice. How can we not, then, fight for justice.” ML King

Zeugma Use of a verb that has two different meanings with objects that complement both meanings “He stole both her car and her heart that fateful night.”

Other Considerations Punctuation: Where do commas, semi-colons, and periods fall within the sentence? –What is the relationship between punctuation and stanzas in a poem? Diction---

Other Considerations Word Order Use of similar words A shift in word order

Your Turn… Examine the use of syntax in a scene from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Identify the elements of grammatical structure Tell the effect of the structural / syntactical elements

Examining Syntax Within a Single Sentence Look at the four excerpts. Identify elements of syntax. What is the effect of the syntax on the reader?

AP Question Paret selection Read the prompt and the selection How does the writer use syntax to produce his effect?

Syntax Chart Use this chart to analyze text Use the chart to reflect on personal writing

Chart page 47 What do we learn from the examination of the syntax? How and why does Norman Mailer, the author, manipulate the syntax?

Sentence Patterns Strong, active verb A question An exclamation Adverb opener Prepositional Phrase opener Inverted Word Order Conversation or quotation Apposition Adverbial clause opener Parallel structure

“A Typical School Day” Examining the Diction and syntax. Follow Directions on the page

A Closer Look at My Writing Reflection Use the chart as a tool to further examine writing Categories can change or may be personalized for each student

Practical Writing Lesson Examine the syntax in the essay. Patterns? Effect of the syntactical elements?

Class Activities on Syntax Read and examine a literary passage with focus on how the words and length echo or support the action. Use the SOS (Sentence Opening Sheet). Draw conclusions.

Activities Assign a short passage Use cooperative groups to read, incorporate the SOS, and draw conclusions Reflection IS SOOOOOO important.

Activities Assign for homework a short passage to read and write an individual analysis of the author’s syntactical style

Activities Have students use the SOS or “A Closer Look” to examine their own essays or a peer. Write evaluations based on the analysis. Revise essays for a more effective syntactical style.

Activities Additions…