1. Donna-Michelle Copas Glencliff High School
Syntax: What’s That?
Donna-Michelle Copas
Glencliff High School

2. Bell Ringer
Consider this chapter from William Faulkner’s novel, As I Lay Dying:
“My Mother is a fish.”
You are writing an autobiography. Each chapter of your life will be based upon a significant event. Select one of the chapters, and write it in Faulkner’s style given above.
Yes, you are using economy of language and writing a one sentence chapter.

3. Formal Definition
The arrangement and grammatical relation of words, phrases, and clauses in sentences; the ordering of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. In this sense, syntax is an important element of an author’s style.

4. Ernest Hemingway’s syntax may be said to be fairly simple, with few complex sentences and few modifying elements.

5. In a More Technical Sense…
Syntax refers to the study of the “rules” for forming the grammatical sentences of a language.

6. Three Components of Grammar
Syntax
Morphology (the study of the processes of word formation)
Phonology (the study of significant speech sounds)

7. Why Study Syntax??? To improve writing
To understand and analyze an author’s achievement of a particular effect
And…

8. Question…
How would you characterize the author’s use of syntax in this text?
How does syntax serve as a component of style?

9. Sentence Types/Grammatical
Simple (one independent clause)
Compound (2 or more IC)
Complex (one IC, one or more dependent clauses)
Compound-Complex

10. Sentence Types/ Grammatical Errors
Fragments
Run-On or Fused Sentences
Other

11. Kinds of Sentences/ Functional
Declarative
Interrogative
Exclamatory
Imperative

12. Lengths of Sentences How many words are in different sentences?
Is a pattern noticeable (example: a cluster of short sentences…)?

13. Length of the Sentences
Telegraphic—shorter than five words in length Medium ---approximately eight words in length Long and Involved (30 plus words)

14. Emphasis of the Sentence/Rhetorical
Loose or cumulative sentence---makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending OR
main idea is stated at the beginning of the sentence followed by additional information
Example: He resigned after denouncing his accusers and asserting his own innocence time and time again.
Sentence continues after the main idea has been stated.

15. Emphasis of the Sentence/Rhetorical
Periodic Sentence---makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached OR
main idea is withheld until the end of the sentence
Example: After denouncing his accusers and asserting his own innocence time and time again, the State Department Official resigned.
Main idea is suspended until the end.

16. Consider? Do you write more periodic or loose sentences?
Do you tell all the information first and then add description or do you like to build suspense and withhold your main idea until the end (periodic)?

17. Emphasis of the Sentence/Rhetorical
Balanced Sentence---phrases or clauses balance each other by likeness of structure, meaning, or length

18. Structure of Sentences
How are words and phrases arranged within the sentence?
How does the author begin and end his sentences?
Why?
What is the effect of the structure?
What is the author trying to accomplish through this arrangement?

19. Order of the Sentence/ Sentence Patterns
Natural order of sentence---subject before the predicate
Subject-Verb-Complement
Inverted order of a sentence---predicate before the subject
Verb-Subject
Used for Emphasis****

20. Order of the Sentence/Sentence Patterns
Juxtaposition---poetic and rhetorical device placing normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases next to one another.

21. Sentence Patterns Strong, active verb A question An exclamation
Adverb opener
Prepositional Phrase opener
Inverted Word Order
Conversation or quotation
Apposition
Adverbial clause opener
Parallel structure

22. Beginnings of Sentences
How does the author begin his sentences?
For example, does the author consistently begin with introductory phrases or clauses? Why?

23. Beginnings of Sentences
Noun or Subject
Transition
Subordinating Clauses
Prepositional Phrases
Participial Phrase
Infinitive
Adjective
Parallel Structure

24. Suggested Sentence Beginnings
Two adjectives
Appositive “Sam, the tall,…”
A Question
Gerund
A Past Participle
A Predicate Adjective or Predicate Noun
Others?

25. Punctuation How does the author punctuate the sentences?
To what extent does the punctuation effect the meaning?
Where do commas, semi-colons, and periods fall within the sentence?
What is the relationship between punctuation and stanzas in a poem?

26. Punctuation Marks Periods Question Marks Exclamation Marks The Dash
Parentheses
Commas
Semicolons
Colons

27. Syntactical Elements
Parallel structure---grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of sentences
Repetition---words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once
Rhetorical question---question that requires no answer
Rhetorical fragment---fragment used deliberately for persuasive purpose

28. Parallelism
Structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence
He was walking, running, and jumping for joy.

29. Repetition
Words, sounds, and ideas used more than once for enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis
“…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth…”

30. Rhetorical Question
A question which expects no answer—used to draw attention to a point, stronger than a direct statement
“Shall the blessed sun of heaven prove a micher and eat blackberries? A question not to be ask’d. Shall the son of England prove a thief and take purses? A question to be ask’d.”

31. Anaphora
Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses
“We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing—grounds , we shall fight in the fields and the streets, we shall fight in the hills.”

32. Antithesis A contrast used for emphasis
“India is a poetic nation, yet it demands new electrical plants. It is a mystical nation, yet it wants new roads.”

33. Juxtaposition
Unassociated ideas, words, or phrases placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise
“The apparition of these faces in the crowd: Petals on a wet, black bough.”

34. Asyndeton
Deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses
“I came. I saw. I conquered.”

35. Polysyndeton Deliberate use of many conjunctions for special emphasis
“The meal was huge—my mother fixed okra and green beans and ham and apple pie and green pickled tomatoes and ambrosia salad and all manner of fine country food..”

36. Chiasmus
Sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal of the first
“Ask not what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country.”

37. Epistrophe
The same word is repeated at the end of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences.
“I believe we should fight for justice. You believe we should fight for justice. How can we not, then, fight for justice.” ML King

38. Zeugma
Use of a verb that has two different meanings with objects that complement both meanings
“He stole both her car and her heart that fateful night.”

39. Other Considerations
Language: What use does the author make of figurative language or colloquial expressions?
General or Specific
Abstract or Concrete
Formal or Informal
Polysyllabic or Monosyllabic
Common Words or Jargon
Denotative or Connotative

40. Other Considerations Word Order Use of similar words
Always consider the effect
Perspective
Interruptions

41. Always look for the contrast/ the shift/ the transition.
Other Considerations
A shift in word order
Always look for the contrast/ the shift/ the transition.

42. Your Turn… Examine the use of syntax in a text
Identify the elements of grammatical structure
Tell the effect of the structural / syntactical elements

43. Examining Syntax Within a Single Sentence
Look at the four excerpts.
Identify elements of syntax.
What is the effect of the syntax on the reader?

44. AP Question Paret selection Read the prompt and the selection
How does the writer use syntax to produce his effect?

45. Syntax Chart Use this chart to analyze text
Use the chart to reflect on personal writing

46. Chart page 47 What do we learn from the examination of the syntax?
How and why does Norman Mailer, the author, manipulate the syntax?

47. “A Typical School Day” Examining the Diction and syntax.
Follow Directions on the page

48. A Closer Look at My Writing
Reflection
Use the chart as a tool to further examine writing
Categories can change or may be personalized for each student

49. Practical Writing Lesson
Examine the syntax in the essay.
Patterns?
Effect of the syntactical elements?

50. Class Activities on Syntax
Read and examine a literary passage with focus on how the words and length echo or support the action. Use the SOS (Sentence Opening Sheet).
Draw conclusions. Reflect.

51. Activities Assign a short passage
Use cooperative groups to read, incorporate the SOS, and draw conclusions
Reflection IS SOOOOOO important.

52. Activities
Assign for homework a short passage to read and write an individual analysis of the author’s syntactical style

53. Activities
Have students use the SOS or “A Closer Look” to examine their own essays or a peer. Write evaluations based on the analysis. Revise essays for a more effective syntactical style.

54. Rewrite Loose Sentences to Periodic Sentences
Florence Nightingale faced problems of official etiquette and red tape when she tried to improve conditions for the wounded soldiers at Scutari.
She was months completing jobs that should have been done in days as if she had not been obliged to follow an elaborate set of rules.
Finally, she took things into her own hands and ignored the time-consuming rules.
The wounded were made clean and comfortable only after great effort by this brave woman.
She is called the founder of the nursing profession because of the great work that she did in the Crimean War.

55. Arrange Ideas in Order of Importance
I call upon you to give your money, your time, your lives for peace.
The man has lost his money, ruined his home, destroyed his honor.