By: Abdullah Azhari Badar Al Lawati Descriptive Research By: Abdullah Azhari Badar Al Lawati CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Definitions Descriptive research: is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More simply: descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Types of Descriptive Research Observational: defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants Correlational: defined as a study of the relation between two or more characteristics Developmental Research: defined as a study of how a particular characteristics changes as people grow older. Survey: defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific topic CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research: Observational Observes the situation as it is without changing or modifying the situation Involves planning, attention to detail, time consuming, & requires multiple researches (assistants) Two types: Quantitative & Qualitative CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Quantitative Vs Qualitative Qualitative: record observations in details (using notes, videotapes)  construct a complex picture of the studied environment Quantitative: Only certain aspects of the elements studied are being recorded (certain human behaviors)  rated for accuracy, intensity, maturity, etc. Always stay objective CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Stay Objective Define the behavior being studied precisely Divide the observation period into measurable segments (to observe the behavior occurrences) Use a rating scale to evaluate the behavior in specific dimensions Include multiple people to observe the the behavior occurrences Train the raters to use specific criteria while observing the the behavior occurrences CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research: Correlation Research Examines the extent to which differences in one characteristics or variable are related to differences in one or more other characteristics or variables It exists if one variable increases, the other variable increases or decreases in (somehow) predictable fashion Researchers collect two or more characteristics for a particular unit of study Note: Correlation doesn’t infer a causation relationship between the characteristics CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Developmental Research Design A study of how a particular characteristics changes as people grow older. Cross-Sectional Study: People from several different age-groups are sampled and compared (correlational study) Different environment conditions Can’t compute correlation between characteristics at different ages Longitude Study: A single group of people is followed over the course of several months or years, and data related to the characteristics studied are collected over time. Losing participants over time Better performance: practice CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Developmental Research Design Overcome the problems by: Cohort-Sequential Design Researcher begins with two or more age groups and follow each age-group over a period of time Disadvantages: Require long time Finding same age groups with similar characteristics is hard CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research: Survey Involves acquiring information about one or more groups of people by asking them questions and documenting their answers A list of questions is created Questions are answered by participants A summery of responses is created (in percentages) Statistical analysis is performed Inferences are made based on the analysis CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Interviews Vs Questionnaires Structured or Semi Structured Face-to-Face Interviews Make a list and meet them Expensive & time consuming Telephone Interviews Literally call anyone on earth Less expensive & time consuming Less response rate Questionnaires Sent to massive number of people Cheaper but low response rate CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Planning for Data Collection Interested in measuring one or more variables Simple variables (length, weight, etc.) Complex variables (people’s opinion, people’s reaction, etc.) Practical Applications: Using Checklists & Rating Scales Computerizing Observations Planning & Conducting Interviews in Quantitative Study Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire Using the Internet to Collect Data for a Descriptive Study CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Using Checklists & Rating Scales Checklist: list of behaviors or characteristics for which a researcher is looking to study. Usually documented in yes/no or observed/not observed during the period of the study Rating Scales: developed by Rensis Likert, and sometimes called the Likert Scales Usually used to evaluate the feeling/behavior of people on a continuum (like: “Never” or “Always”, “Strongly Disagree” or “Strongly Agree”) CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Using Checklists & Rating Scales CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Computerizing Observations Using Computer Applications to record the answers Spreadsheet or template in a document Simple checklists with participant ID and X for the checked items Use tablets or mobile scanning devices to record the responses instead of pencil & paper Google docs or Surveymonkey.com are good examples CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Planning & Conducting Interviews in Quantitative Study More than just asking questions Should be carefully planned and worded Setup the interview questions in advance Send the agenda of questions to the interviewee Ask for permission to record the interview (sound or video) Confirm the date and time at the begging of the interview Send a reminder of the questions 10 days before the interview Be prompt, follow the agenda, be prepared with extra copies Offer acknowledgment after the interview/obtain confirmation Get written permission from interviewees prior to publishing CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire Not as easy as it seems, can be tricky Majority of the cases deal with low return rates Tips on how to construct a successful questionnaire: CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire Keep it short Keep the respondent’s task simple & concrete Provide straightforward, specific instructions Use simple, clear, unambiguous language Give a rationale for any items whose purpose maybe unclear Check for unwarranted assumptions implicit in your questions Word your questions in ways that don’t give clues about a desired response Determine in advance how you will code the responses Check for consistency Conduct at least 1 pilot study to validate your questions Scrutinize the almost final product one more time Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire Using technology to facilitate Questionnaires: Use e-mail to request participation and obtain participants’ responses If you use paper mail delivery rather than email, use a processing program to personalize your correspondence Use a computer database to keep track of who has responded and who has not Use a scanner to facilitate data tabulation When participants are in the same location that you are, administer the questionnaire directly on a computer CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Constructing & Administrating a Questionnaire Maximizing the return rate for a questionnaire: Consider the timing Make a good first impression Motivate potential respondents If mailing the questionnaire, include pre-paid return envelope Offer the results of your study Be gently persistent CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Practical Applications: Using the Internet to Collect Data for Descriptive Study Using custom made websites or commercial “survey-ready” websites Ready templates with variety of questions types Accepting Terms & Conditions “Virtual Consent” Sampling is a problem: Collect some personal information (Age group, educational level, gender, etc.) CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Research Sampling: The process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest for a study. Sample: A sample is made up of individuals, events, or items selected from the population Generalization about the entire population? Stating the problem must carefully qualifying words as: selected – representative – typical – certain – a random sample of. Example: The purpose of this research is to survey …. Of the population. The purpose of this research is to survey the representative …. Of a random sample of the population. Generalization about the entire population (only if the sample is truly representative of the population) In general, the sampling should be so carefully chosen that the researcher is able to seen characteristics of the total population in the same properties and relationships that they would be seen if the researcher were to examine the total population. If the sampling procedure is not carefully planned, any conclusion the researcher draws from the data are likely to be distorted (Bias) CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Defining a Population Population may be any size and cover large geographical distance. The entire population is rarely available. Target population: population to which the researcher would ideally like to generalize results. Accessible population: population from which researcher can realistically select participants. CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Probability Sampling Approaches These techniques permit the researcher to specify the probability that each member of the population has being selected for the sample Simple random sampling Stratified random sampling Proportional stratified sampling Cluster sampling Systematic sampling CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Stratified random sampling CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Proportional stratified sampling CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Cluster sampling CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Systematic sampling CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

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Non-probability Sampling Approaches Convenience sampling Quota sampling Purposive sampling CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Population The survey research center of the university of Michigan’s institute for social research (1976) has used what it calls multistage sampling of areas: Primary area selection Sample location selection Chunk selection Segment selection Housing unit selection CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Identifying a Sufficient sample size For smaller population (N ≤ 100) Survey the entire population If the population size about N = 500 (give or take 100) 50 % should be sampled If the population size is around 1500 20 % should be sampled Beyond a certain point ( about N = 5000) Sample size of 400 will be adequate If the population is markedly heterogeneous, a large sample will be necessary than if the population is fairly homogeneous. CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Bias in research sampling Acknowledging the probable presence of Bias Identify possible bias in questionnaire research: Carefully scrutinize the questionnaire for that might be influenced by one’s education level, interest in the topic, or other factors that frequently distinguish respondents from non-respondents. Compare the responses on questionnaires that were returned quickly with responses on those that were returned later The late ones may, to some extent, reflect the kinds of responses that non-respondents would have given. Significant difference between the early and late questionnaire probably indicate bias in your results. Randomly select small number of non-respondents and try to contact them by other way. CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research Basic principles of research: The purpose of research is to seek the answer to a problem in the light of data that relate to the problem. Although collecting data for study and organizing it for inspection require care and precision, extracting meaning from the data – the interpretation of the data – is all important. The researcher must decide on population; choose a technique for sampling; develop a valid means of collecting the desired information; minimize the potential entrance of bias into the study; then actually collect, record, organize, and analyze all of the necessary data. CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

Final Suggestion Consider the following questions: Why is a description of this population and/or phenomenon valuable? What specific data will I need to solve my research problem and its sub problems? What procedures should I follow to obtain the necessary information? How should I implement those procedures? How do I get a sample that will truly be reflective of the entire population about which I am concerned? How can I collect my data in a way that minimize misrepresentations and misunderstanding? How can I control for possible bias in the collection and description of the data? What do I do with the data once I have collected them? How I organize and prepare them for analysis? In what way might I reasonably interpret the data? What conclusion might I reach from my investigation? CSC 426 - Descriptive Research

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