Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services 9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services

Core Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone? Bees play a key role in pollination Globally, about one third of the food supply comes from insect-pollinated plants Currently, agriculture depends heavily on a single species of bee Suffering from Colony Collapse Disorder Each year, 30-50% of colonies in Europe and the U.S.

Honeybee Figure 9-1: European honeybee drawing nectar from a flower. Fig. 9-1, p. 190

9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services? Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth By the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times higher than that background rate

Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply Biological extinction No species member alive Trophic cascade Population declines or extinctions among connected species Mass extinction Many species in a short amount of time

Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services Background extinction rate 1 extinct species / year / 1 million species Extinction rates have risen recently Current extinction rate is at least 100 times higher than typical background rate of 0.0001%

Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services (cont’d.) Rate of extinction and threats to ecosystem services likely to rise sharply in the next 50-100 years Due to harmful human impacts Biodiversity hotspots Extinction rates projected to be much higher than average Biologically diverse environments are being eliminated or fragmented

Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms Endangered species So few members that the species could soon become extinct Threatened species (vulnerable species) Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining May soon be endangered

Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (cont’d Regionally extinct In areas a species is normally found Functionally extinct To the point at which species can no longer play a functional role in the ecosystem

Figure 9-2: Endangered natural capital: These four critically endangered species are threatened with extinction, largely because of human activities. The number below each photo indicates the estimated total number of individuals of that species remaining in the wild, as of 2012. Fig. 9-2, p. 193

41% Amphibians Conifers 30% 25% Mammals Birds 13% Figure 9-3 Endangered natural capital: Comparison of the percentages of various types of known species that are threatened with extinction hastened by human activities (Concept 9-1). Question: Why do you think so many of the world’s amphibians are threatened with extinction? Birds 13% Fig. 9-3, p. 194

Characteristic Examples Low reproductive rate Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Characteristic Examples Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Narrow distribution Elephant seal, desert pupfish Feeds at high trophic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle Rare African violet, some orchids Figure 9-4: Certain characteristics can put a species in greater danger of becoming extinct. Commercially valuable Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds Large territories California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Stepped Art Fig. 9-4, p. 194

9-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of Species Extinction? We should avoid speeding up the extinction of wild species because: Of the ecosystem and economic services they provide It can take millions of years for nature to recover from large-scale extinctions Many people believe that species have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital Major reasons to prevent extinctions Species provide vital ecosystem services Help keep us alive and support our economies Many species also contribute economic services Plants for food, fuel, lumber, and medicine Ecotourism

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (cont’d.) It will take 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity after this century’s extinctions Many people believe species have an intrinsic right to exist How do we decide which species to protect?

Figure 9-5: Natural capital degradation Figure 9-5: Natural capital degradation. These endangered orangutans depend on a rapidly disappearing tropical forest habitat. Question: What difference will it make if human activities hasten the extinction of the orangutan? Fig. 9-5, p. 194

Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure Figure 9-6: Natural capital. These plant species are examples of nature’s pharmacy. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, scientists can usually produce them synthetically. The active ingredients in nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicides Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment Fig. 9-6, p. 196

Figure 9-7: Many species of wildlife such as this endangered hyacinth macaw in Mato Grosso, Brazil, are sources of beauty and pleasure. It is endangered because of habitat loss and illegal capture in the wild by pet traders. Fig. 9-7, p. 196

9-3 How Are We Threatening Species and Ecosystem Services? The greatest threats to any species are (in order): Loss or degradation of its habitat Harmful invasive species Human population growth Pollution Climate change Overexploitation

Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation Invasive (nonnative) species Population and resource use growth Pollution Climate change Overexploitation

Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species (cont’d.) Habitat fragmentation Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, and urban development National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands

Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today Figure 9-8: Natural capital degradation: These maps reveal the reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of severe habitat loss and fragmentation and illegal hunting for some of their valuable body parts. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for human habitation and farming? Explain. Stepped Art Fig. 9-8, p. 198

We Have Moved Disruptive Species into Some Ecosystems Many species introductions are beneficial Nonnative species may have no natural: Predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens Nonnative species can crowd out native species Invasive species

Deliberately introduced species Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad (Giant toad) Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Accidentally introduced species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Figure 9-9: These are some of the estimated 7,100 harmful invasive species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States. Stepped Art Fig. 9-9, p. 199

Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu Bugs Imported from Japan in the 1930s Help control soil erosion Very difficult to kill Could there be benefits of kudzu? Kudzu bug – imported from Japan Can kill Kudzu vine Also kills soybeans

Figure 9-10: Kudzu has grown over this car in the U. S Figure 9-10: Kudzu has grown over this car in the U.S. state of Georgia. Fig. 9-10, p. 200

Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems Argentina fire ant – introduced in the 1930s Reduced populations of native ants Painful stings can kill Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions Tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants

Case Study: Burmese Pythons Are Eating Their Way through the Florida Everglades Accidentally introduced Reproduce rapidly and are hard to kill Greatly depleted Everglades populations of: Rabbits, foxes, raccoons, opossums, and deer

Figure 9-11: University of Florida researchers hold a 4 Figure 9-11: University of Florida researchers hold a 4.6-meter-long (15-foot-long), 74-kilogram (162-pound) Burmese python captured in Everglades National Park shortly after it had eaten a 1.8-meter-long (6-foot-long) American alligator. Fig. 9-11, p. 201

Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species Research programs identifying invaders Establishing international treaties banning transfer between countries Public education about exotic pets and plants What else can be done to prevent invasive species?

Figure 9-12: Individuals matter Figure 9-12: Individuals matter. Here are some ways to prevent or slow the spread of harmful invasive species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you think are the most important to take? Why? Which of these actions do you plan to take? Fig. 9-12, p. 202

Other Causes of Species Extinctions Human population growth and overconsumption Degrading habitat Pollution Bioaccumulation can cause extinctions of species not directly affected by pollution Climate change Some species will become extinct, some will spread

DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm Figure 9-13: Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT is biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level, as it was in the case of a food chain in the U.S. state of New York, illustrated here. (Dots in this figure represent DDT.) Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention? DDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 ppt Stepped Art Fig. 9-13, p. 202

Case Study: Polar Bears and Climate Change Live only in the Arctic Arctic ice is melting Decreasing polar bear habitat Polar bears must swim farther between ice Weaker females; less reproduction

Figure 9-14: On floating ice in Svalbard, Norway, a polar bear feeds on its ringed seal prey. Question: Do you think it matters that the polar bear may become extinct during this century primarily because of human activities? Explain. Fig. 9-14, p. 204

Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants Animal parts Pets Plants for landscaping and enjoyment Prevention Research and education

Figure 9-15: A poacher in South Africa killed this critically endangered northern white rhinoceros for its two horns. This species is now extinct in the wild. With a rhino horn worth up to $300,000 on the Asian black market, thieves have been stealing the horns from museums, antique stores, and even private collections. Question: What would you say if you could talk to the poacher who killed this animal for its horns? Fig. 9-15, p. 205

A Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens Some African Species West and Central African wild animals Supply major cities with exotic meats Hunting has driven one species to extinction Miss Waldron’s red colobus monkey Threatened species: Monkeys, apes, antelope, elephants, and hippos

Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds 70% of the world’s bird species are declining Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species These species eat the birds

Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (cont’d.) Exposure to pesticides Overexploitation For pets Birds are indicator species Respond quickly to environmental changes Birds perform critical ecosystem and economic services Extinctions could affect many other species

Figure 9-17: Endangered natural capital: This endangered Attwater’s prairie chicken lives in a wildlife refuge in the U.S. state of Texas. Fig. 9-17, p. 206

9-4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and Their Ecosystem Services? We can reduce species extinction and sustain ecosystem services by: Establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international treaties Creating protected wildlife sanctuaries Taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm

International Treaties and National Laws Help to Protect Species 1975 – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Signed by 172 countries Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD) Focuses on ecosystems Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act Endangered Species Act (ESA) – 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988 Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.) Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from funding or authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered or threatened species In 2012, 1,394 species officially listed Offer incentives to private property owners to help

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.) Is the ESA a failure? Species are listed only when in serious danger Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or improving Budget is about 57 cents per U.S. citizen

Figure 9-19: The American bald eagle has been removed from the U. S Figure 9-19: The American bald eagle has been removed from the U.S. endangered species list. Here, an eagle is about to catch a fish in its powerful talons. Fig. 9-19, p. 209

We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal wildlife refuge Pelican Island, Florida Wildlife refuges Most are wetland sanctuaries More needed for endangered plants Are not immune from disturbance

Figure 9-20: The Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge in Florida was America’s first National Wildlife Refuge. Fig. 9-20, p. 210

Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species Preserve genetic material of endangered plants Botanical gardens and arboreta Living plants Farms can raise organisms for commercial sale

Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species Egg pulling Captive breeding Artificial insemination Embryo transfer Use of incubators Cross-fostering

Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (cont’d.) Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing populations to the wild Limited space and funds

Figure 9-21: The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California (USA), contains this tidewater pool, which is used to train rescued sea otter pups to survive in the wild. Fig. 9-21, p. 211

Figure 9-22: Individuals matter: You can help to prevent the extinction of species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you believe are the most important? Why? Fig. 9-22, p. 212

The Precautionary Principle Act to prevent or reduce harm when preliminary evidence indicates acting is needed Species are the primary components of biodiversity Should we focus on the preservation of species or the preservation of ecosystems?

Case Study: Protecting Honeybees and Other Pollinators Failure to protect honeybees Loss of vital ecosystem services Farmers are: Breeding bees resistant to harmful parasitic mites and fungi Raising their own colonies Improving bee nutrition

Three Big Ideas We are hastening the extinction of wild species and degrading the ecosystem services they provide by: Destroying and degrading habitats Introducing harmful invasive species Increasing human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation

Three Big Ideas (cont’d.) We should avoid causing the extinction of wild species Species provide vital ecosystem and economic services Their existence should not depend primarily on their usefulness to us

Three Big Ideas (cont’d.) We can work to prevent the extinction of species and to protect overall biodiversity and ecosystem services by: Using laws and treaties Protecting wildlife sanctuaries Making greater use of the precautionary principle