Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach
Chapter 9

Core Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever
Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900 Commercial hunters used a "stool pigeon” Archeological record shows five mass extinctions Human activities: hastening more extinctions?

Passenger Pigeon

9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Premature Extinction of Species?
Concept 9-1A We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in many parts of the world, and these threats are increasing. Concept 9-1B Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth (the background rate), and by the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times the background rate.

Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Biodiversity
Human activity has disturbed at least half of the earth’s land surface Fills in wetlands Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas Degraded aquatic biodiversity

Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply
Background extinction Extinction rate Mass extinction: causes? Levels of species extinction Local extinction Ecological extinction Biological extinction

Some Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up (1)
Premature extinctions due to Habitat destruction Overhunting

Some Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up (2)
Conservative estimates of extinction = % Growth of human population will increase this loss Rates are higher where there are more endangered species Tropical forests and coral reefs, wetlands and estuaries—sites of new species—being destroyed Speciation crisis

Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities

Aepyornis (Madagascar)
Figure 9.2 Lost natural capital: some animal species that have become prematurely extinct largely because of human activities, mostly habitat destruction and overhunting. Question: Why do you think birds top the list of extinct species? Passenger pigeon Great auk Dodo Golden toad Aepyornis (Madagascar) Fig. 9-2, p. 185

Effects of a 0.1% Extinction Rate

Number of years until one million species are extinct
Number of species existing Effects of a 0.1% extinction rate 5 million 5,000 extinct per year 14 million 14,000 extinct per year 50 million 50,000 extinct per year Figure 9.3 Effects of a 0.1% extinction rate. 100,000 extinct per year 100 million 50 100 150 200 Number of years until one million species are extinct Fig. 9-3, p. 186

Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms
Endangered species Threatened species, vulnerable species Characteristics of such species

Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

Swallowtail butterfly
Grizzly bear Kirkland’s warbler Knowlton cactus Florida manatee African elephant Utah prairie dog Swallowtail butterfly Humpback chub Golden lion tamarin Siberian tiger Figure 9.4 Endangered natural capital: some species that are endangered or threatened with premature extinction largely because of human activities. Almost 30,000 of the world’s species and roughly 1,300 of those in the United States are officially listed as being in danger of becoming extinct. Most biologists believe the actual number of species at risk is much larger. Giant panda Black-footed ferret Whooping crane Northern spotted owl Blue whale Mountain gorilla Florida panther California condor Hawksbill sea turtle Black rhinoceros Fig. 9-4, p. 187

Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Ecological and Biological Extinction

Characteristic Examples Low reproductive rate (K-strategist)
Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Narrow distribution Elephant seal, desert pupfish Feeds at high trophic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle Figure 9.5 Characteristics of species that are prone to ecological and biological extinction. Question: Which of these characteristics helped lead to the premature extinction of the passenger pigeon within a single human lifetime? Rare African violet, some orchids Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds Commercially valuable California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Large territories Fig. 9-5, p. 188

Characteristic Examples Low reproductive rate (K-strategist)
Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Characteristic Examples Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Narrow distribution Elephant seal, desert pupfish Feeds at high trophic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle Rare African violet, some orchids Figure 9.5 Characteristics of species that are prone to ecological and biological extinction. Question: Which of these characteristics helped lead to the premature extinction of the passenger pigeon within a single human lifetime? Commercially valuable Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds Large territories California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Stepped Art Fig. 9-5, p. 188

Percentage of Various Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

34% (51% of freshwater species)
Fishes 34% (51% of freshwater species) Amphibians 32% Mammals 25% Reptiles 20% Figure 9.6 Endangered natural capital: percentage of various types of species threatened with premature extinction because of human activities (Concept 9-1A). Question: Why do you think fishes top this list? (Data from World Conservation Union, Conservation International, World Wide Fund for Nature, 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) Plants 14% Birds 12% Fig. 9-6, p. 189

Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates Is Not Easy
Three problems Hard to document due to length of time Only 1.8 million species identified Little known about nature and ecological roles of species identified Document little changes in DNA Use species–area relationship Mathematical models

9-2 Why Should We Care about Preventing Premature Species Extinction?
Concept 9-2 We should prevent the premature extinction of wild species because of the economic and ecological services they provide and because they have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us.

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital
Instrumental value Use value Ecotourism: wildlife tourism Genetic information Nonuse value Existence value Aesthetic value Bequest value Ecological value

Natural Capital Degradation: Endangered Orangutans in a Tropical Forest

Natural Capital: Nature’s Pharmacy

Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia,
Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure Figure 9.8 Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plant and animal species (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them. Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicide Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment Fig. 9-8, p. 190

Endangered Scarlet Macaw is a Source of Beauty and Pleasure

Science Focus: Using DNA to Reduce Illegal Killing of Elephants for Their Ivory
1989 international treaty against poaching elephants Poaching on the rise Track area of poaching through DNA analysis of elephants Elephants damaging areas of South Africa: Should they be culled?

Are We Ethically Obligated to Prevent Premature Extinction?
Intrinsic value: existence value Edward O. Wilson: biophilia phenomenon Biophobia

Science Focus: Why Should We Care about Bats?
Vulnerable to extinction Slow to reproduce Human destruction of habitats Important ecological roles Feed on crop-damaging nocturnal insects Pollen-eaters Fruit-eaters Unwarranted fears of bats

ABC Video: Bachelor pad at the zoo

ABC Video: Hsing Hsing dies

ABC Video: Penguin rescue

9-3 How do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction?
Concept 9-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation.

Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation Invasive (nonnative) species Population and resource use growth Pollution Climate change Overexploitation

Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of World Species

NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION
Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of Wild Species Underlying Causes • Population growth • Rising resource use • Undervaluing natural capital • Poverty Figure 9.10 Underlying and direct causes of depletion and premature extinction of wild species (Concept 9-3). The major direct causes of wildlife depletion and premature extinction are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. This is followed by the deliberate or accidental introduction of harmful invasive (nonnative) species into ecosystems. Question: What are two direct causes that are related to each of the underlying causes? Direct Causes • Habitat loss • Pollution • Commercial hunting and poaching • Habitat degradation and fragmentation • Climate change • Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants • Overfishing • Introduction of nonnative species • Predator and pest control Fig. 9-10, p. 193

Natural Capital Degradation: Reduction in the Ranges of Four Wildlife Species

Figure 9.11 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Fig. 9-11a, p. 194

Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today Figure 9.11
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Range 100 years ago Range today Fig. 9-11a, p. 194

Figure 9.11 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Fig. 9-11b, p. 194

Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today Figure 9.11
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Range in 1700 Range today Fig. 9-11b, p. 194

Figure 9.11 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Fig. 9-11c, p. 194

African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Figure 9.11
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Probable range 1600 Range today Fig. 9-11c, p. 194

Figure 9.11 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Fig. 9-11d, p. 194

Asian or Indian Elephant
Figure 9.11 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Former range Range today Fig. 9-11d, p. 194

Asian or Indian Elephant
Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today Figure 9.11 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Stepped Art Fig. 9-11, p. 194

Science Focus: Studying the Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Old-Growth Trees
Tropical Biologist Bill Laurance, et al. How large must a forest fragment be in order to prevent the loss of rare trees?

Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (1)
Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species Eat the birds

Seabirds caught and drown in fishing equipment Migrating birds fly into power lines, communication towers, and skyscrapers Other threats Oil spills Pesticides Herbicides Ingestion of toxic lead shotgun pellets

Greatest new threat: Climate change Environmental indicators Economic and ecological services

Distribution of Bird Species in North America and Latin America

Number of bird species 609 400 200 1 Figure 9.12
Distribution of bird species in North America and Latin America. Question: Why do you think more bird species are found in Latin America than in North America? (Data from The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund, and Environment Canada). 400 200 1 Fig. 9-12, p. 195

The Ten Most Threatened Song Birds in the United States

Golden-cheeked warbler California gnatcatcher
Cerulean warbler Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Black-capped vireo Golden-cheeked warbler Figure 9.13 The 10 most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Most of these species are vulnerable because of habitat loss and fragmentation from human activities. An estimated 12% of the world’s known bird species may face premature extinction due mostly to human activities during this century. (Data from National Audubon Society) Florida scrub jay California gnatcatcher Kirtland's warbler Henslow's sparrow Bachman's warbler Fig. 9-13, p. 196

Science Focus: Vultures, Wild Dogs, and Rabies: Unexpected Scientific Connections
Vultures poisoned from diclofenac in cow carcasses More wild dogs eating the cow carcasses More rabies spreading to people

Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems
Most species introductions are beneficial Food Shelter Medicine Aesthetic enjoyment Nonnative species may have no natural Predators Competitors Parasites Pathogens

Some Harmful Nonnative Species in the United States

Figure 9.14 Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States. Fig. 9-14a, p. 199

Deliberately Introduced Species
Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Figure 9.14 Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States. Marine toad (Giant toad) Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Fig. 9-14a, p. 199

Figure 9.14 Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States. Fig. 9-14b, p. 199

Accidentally Introduced Species
Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon (Rock dove) Figure 9.14 Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States. Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Fig. 9-14b, p. 199

Deliberately introduced species
Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad (Giant toad) Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Accidentally introduced species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Figure 9.14 Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States. Stepped Art Fig. 9-14, p. 199

Case Study: The Kudzu Vine
Imported from Japan in the 1930s “ The vine that ate the South” Could there be benefits of kudzu?

Kudzu Taking Over an Abandoned House in Mississippi, U.S.

Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Also Disrupt Ecosystems
Argentina fire ant: 1930s Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions Burmese python

Argentina Fire Ant Accidentally Introduced into Mobile, Alabama, U.S.

Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species
Prevent them from becoming established Learn the characteristics of the species Set up research programs Try to find natural ways to control them

Characteristics of Invader Species and Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invading Species

What Can You Do? Controlling Invasive Species

Other Causes of Species Extinction (1)
Population growth Overconsumption Pollution Climate change

Other Causes of Species Extinction (2)
Pesticides DDT: Banned in the U.S. in 1972 Bioaccumulation Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys)
25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm Figure 9.19 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification. DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT can be biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level. The concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms was biomagnified about 10 million times in this food chain in an estuary near Long Island Sound in the U.S. state of New York. If each phytoplankton organism takes up from the water and retains one unit of DDT, a small fish eating thousands of zooplankton (which feed on the phytoplankton) will store thousands of units of DDT in its fatty tissue. Each large fish that eats 10 of the smaller fish will ingest and store tens of thousands of units, and each bird (or human) that eats several large fish will ingest hundreds of thousands of units. Dots represent DDT. Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention? DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm DDT in water ppm, or 3 ppt Fig. 9-19, p. 202

DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys)
25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm Figure 9.19 Bioaccumulation and biomagnification. DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT can be biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level. The concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms was biomagnified about 10 million times in this food chain in an estuary near Long Island Sound in the U.S. state of New York. If each phytoplankton organism takes up from the water and retains one unit of DDT, a small fish eating thousands of zooplankton (which feed on the phytoplankton) will store thousands of units of DDT in its fatty tissue. Each large fish that eats 10 of the smaller fish will ingest and store tens of thousands of units, and each bird (or human) that eats several large fish will ingest hundreds of thousands of units. Dots represent DDT. Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention? DDT in water ppm, or 3 ppt Stepped Art Fig. 9-19, p. 202

Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?
Honeybees responsible for 80% of insect-pollinated plants Dying due to? Pesticides Parasites Bee colony collapse syndrome

Case Study: Polar Bears and Global Warming
Environmental impact on polar bears Less summer sea ice PCBs and DDT 2007: Threatened species list

Polar Bear with Seal Prey

Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants Animal parts Pets Plants for landscaping and enjoyment Prevention: research and education

White Rhinoceros Killed by a Poacher

Individuals Matter: Jane Goodall
Primatologist and anthropologist 45 years understanding and protecting chimpanzees Chimps have tool-making skills

Rising Demand for Bush Meat Threatens Some African Species
Indigenous people sustained by bush meat More hunters leading to local extinction of some wild animals

Bush Meat: Lowland Gorilla

Animation: Humans affect biodiversity

Active Figure: Habitat loss and fragmentation

Video: Bird species and birdsongs

9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (1)
Concept 9-4A We can use existing environmental laws and treaties and work to enact new laws designed to prevent species extinction and protect overall biodiversity. Concept 9-4B We can help to prevent species extinction by creating and maintaining wildlife refuges, gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums.

9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (2)
Concept 9-4C According to the precautionary principle, we should take measures to prevent or reduce harm to the environment and to human health, even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established, scientifically.

International Treaties Help to Protect Species
1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Signed by 172 countries Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD) Focuses on ecosystems Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (1)
Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1983, and 1985 Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad Hot Spots Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) colony

Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (2)
Mixed reviews of the ESA Weaken it Repeal it Modify it Strengthen it Simplify it Streamline it

Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species

Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (1)
Species listed only when serious danger of extinction Takes decades for most species to become endangered or extinct More than half of the species listed are stable or improving Budget has been small

Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (2)
Suggested changes to ESA Increase the budget Develop recovery plans more quickly Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat

We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas
1903: Theodore Roosevelt Wildlife refuges Most are wetland sanctuaries More needed for endangered plants Could abandoned military lands be used for wildlife habitats?

Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species
Gene or seed banks Preserve genetic material of endangered plants Botanical gardens and arboreta Living plants Farms to raise organisms for commercial sale

Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (1)
Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species Egg pulling Captive breeding Artificial insemination Embryo transfer Use of incubators Cross-fostering

Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (2)
Limited space and funds Critics say these facilities are prisons for the organisms

What Can You Do? Protecting Species

Case Study: Trying to Save the California Condor
Largest North American bird Nearly extinct Birds captured and breed in captivity By 2007, 135 released into the wild Threatened by lead poisoning

The Precautionary Principle
Species: primary components of biodiversity Preservation of species Preservation of ecosystems

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

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