1. 13e Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

2. Core Case Study: Polar Bears and Projected Climate Change 20,000 – 25,000 polar bears in Arctic Hunt seals on winter sea ice Global warming is quickly reducing the amount of sea ice and how long it lasts in winter Polar bears have less time to hunt and store fat for summer fasting Projected 30-35% decline by 2050 Potentially extinct from wild by 2100

3. Fig. 8-1, p. 152

4. 8-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Premature Extinction of Species? Concept 8-1 Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on earth, and by the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected be 10,000 times higher than the background rate.

5. Human Activities and Extinction Background extinction rate Current rate is 100-1000 times background extinction Rate likely to rise to 10,000 times Is a mass extinction coming?

6. Current Extinction Rate Estimates Are Conservative Species and biodiversity decrease in next 50–100 years Biodiversity hotspot rates higher than global average Degrading, simplifying, and destroying diverse environments

7. Fig. 8-2, p. 154

8. Aepyornis (Madagascar) Passenger pigeonGreat aukDodoGolden Toad Fig. 8-2, p. 154

9. Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates (1) Three difficulties 1.Not easy to document – takes a long time 2.Only 2 million species of 8-100 million identified 3.Little is known about the 2 million species

10. Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates (2) Study records of post-human extinctions with previous extinctions from the fossil record DNA copying mistakes How habitat reduction increases extinction Mathematical models Inadequate data and models Normal: 1 million to 10 million years Humans have greatly accelerated this

11. Ecological Smoke Alarms Endangered species Threatened species The first to go: large, slow, tasty, or have valuable parts Some behaviors make species prone to extinction

12. Fig. 8-3, p. 156

13. Siberian tiger Grizzly bear Kirkland’s warbler Knowlton cactus Florida manatee African elephant Utah prairie dog Swallowtail butterfly Humpback chub Golden lion tamarin Fig. 8-3, p. 156

15. Black rhinoceros Giant pandaBlack-footed ferret Whooping crane Northern spotted owl Blue whale Mountain gorillaFlorida panther California condor Hawksbill sea turtle Fig. 8-3, p. 156

16. Fig. 8-4, p. 157

17. Large territories Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Elephant seal, desert pupfish Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle African violet, some orchids Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Examples Characteristic Low reproductive rate Specialized niche Narrow distribution Feeds at high trophic level Fixed migratory patterns Rare Commercially valuable Fig. 8-4, p. 157

18. Stepped Art Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle Feeds at high trophic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Narrow distribution Elephant seal, desert pupfish Commercially valuable Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds Low reproductive rate Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros CharacteristicExamples Rare African violet, some orchids Large territories California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Fig. 8-4, p. 157

19. Fig. 8-5, p. 157

20. 25% Fish Amphibians Mammals Reptiles Plants Birds 34% (51% of freshwater species) 32% 12% 14% 20% Fig. 8-5, p. 157

21. Case Study: Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon Audubon, 1813: 3 days for a flock to pass over Extinct by 1900 –Good to eat –Feathers good for pillows –Bones good for fertilizer –Easy to kill

22. 8-2 Why Should We Care about Preventing Species Extinction? Concept 8-2 We should prevent the premature extinction of wild species because of the economic and ecological services they provide and because they have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us.

23. Value of Species Instrumental value of biodiversity –Food crops –Genetic information –Medicine –Bioprospectors –Ecotourism Do not know what we lose when species go extinct

24. Fig. 8-6, p. 158

25. Fig. 8-7, p. 158

26. Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicide Rosy periwinkle Fig. 8-7, p. 158

27. Ethical Obligations Intrinsic (existence) value Stewardship viewpoint

28. 8-3 How Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction? Concept 8-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation.

29. Fig. 8-8, p. 160

30. Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of Wild Species Population growth Rising resource use Undervaluing natural capital Poverty Habitat loss Habitat degradation and fragmentation Introduction of nonnative species Commercial hunting and poaching Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants Predator and pest control Pollution Climate change Overfishing Underlying Causes Direct Causes Natural Capital Degradation

31. Causes of Endangerment and Premature Extinction (HIPPCO) Habitat destruction Invasive species Population growth Pollution Climate change Overexploitation

32. Habitat Loss Deforestation of tropical areas greatest eliminator of species Endemic species Habitat fragmentation

33. Fig. 8-9, p. 161

35. Stepped Art Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today Fig. 8-9, p. 161

36. Case Study: Declining Bird Species (1) Decline of ~70% of ~10,000 known species 12% threatened with extinction Birds around humans benefited, but forest species declined Long-distance migrants – greatest decline

37. Case Study: Declining Bird Species (2) Reasons –Habitat loss –Habitat fragmentation –Climate change Birds are environmental indicators Perform economic and ecological services

38. Species Introductions Most beneficial – food crops, livestock, pest control 500,000 alien invader species globally 50,000 nonnative species in the U.S. Some definitely not beneficial

39. Fig. 8-10, p. 163

40. European wild boar (Feral pig) Deliberately Introduced Species Purple loosestrifeEuropean starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad (Giant toad) Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla Fig. 8-10, p. 163

42. Gypsy moth larvae Accidentally Introduced Species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long- horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Fig. 8-10, p. 163

43. Stepped Art Deliberately introduced species Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) NutriaSalt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad (Giant toad) Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Accidentally introduced species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long- horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Fig. 8-10, p. 163

44. Case Study: The Kudzu Vine Kudzu introduced to control erosion Prolific growth Uses –Asians use powdered starch in beverages –Edible –Source of tree-free paper –Japanese kudzu farm in Alabama

45. Fig. 8-11, p. 164

46. Disruptions from Accidentally Introduced Species Downside of global trade Downside of traveling Argentina fire ant Burmese python Zebra mussel

47. Fig. 8-12, p. 165

48. Prevention of Nonnative Species (1) Identify characteristics of successful invaders Detect and monitor invasions Inspect imported goods Identify harmful invasive species and ban transfer

49. Prevention of Nonnative Species (2) Ships discharge ballast waters at sea Introduce natural control organisms of invaders

50. Fig. 8-13, p. 165

51. Fig. 8-14, p. 166

52. Human Choices Drive Extinction Human population growth Excessive, wasteful consumption Use of pesticides Climate change

53. DDT and Bioaccumulation 1950s–1960s fish-eating bird populations drop DDT biologically magnified in food webs Bird’s eggshells thin and fragile Leads to unsuccessful reproduction

54. Fig. 8-15, p. 166

55. DDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 ppt DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm Fig. 8-15, p. 166

56. Stepped Art DDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 ppt DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm Fig. 8-15, p. 166

57. Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone? Honeybees responsible for 80% of pollination of insect-pollinated plants Population down 30% since the 1980s –Pesticides –Parasitic mites –Invasive African honeybees 2008: 36% of honeybee colonies lost –Colony collapse disorder –New nicotine-based pesticides to blame?

58. Illegal Killing and Trading of Wildlife Poaching endangers many larger animals, rare plants Over two-thirds die in transit Illegal trade: $1.1 million per hour Wild species depleted by pet trade Exotic plants often illegally gathered

59. Fig. 8-16, p. 168

60. Fig. 8-A, p. 168

61. The Value of Wild Rare Species Declining populations increase black market values Rare species valuable in the wild – eco-tourism Some ex-poachers turn to eco- tourism

62. Rising Demand for Bush Meat Demand increasing with population growth Increased road access Loggers, miners, ranchers add to pressure Local and biological extinctions Spread of HIV and Ebola virus

63. Fig. 8-17, p. 169

64. 8-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? Concept 8-4 We can reduce species extinction and help to protect overall biodiversity by establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international treaties, creating a variety of protected wildlife sanctuaries, and taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm.

65. International Treaties Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

66. U.S. Endangered Species Act (1) National Marine Fisheries Services – ocean species U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – other species Listings based on biological factors Forbids federal agency projects that jeopardize listed species or habitats

67. U.S. Endangered Species Act (2) Fines violations on private land Illegal to sell or buy listed species 1,318 species listed USFWS and NMFS supposed to prepare recovery plan – 86% species in 2009

68. U.S. Endangered Species Act (3) Successful recovery plans include American alligator, grey wolf, and bald eagle Lax enforcement of imports and exports Amended to give private landowners economic incentive to save species

69. Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act Biologists defend limited success –Species listed only when gravely threatened –Takes long time for species to recover –>50% endangered species improving Need more funding Develop recovery plans more quickly Core habitat established when listed

70. Protection of Marine Species ESA and international treaties protect endangered marine reptiles and mammals Challenges to protecting marine species –Limited knowledge of species –Difficulty in monitoring and enforcing treaties – open oceans

71. Sea Turtles Threatened Six species critically endangered Loss or degradation of habitat Illegal harvest of eggs Threats from fishing methods Protection measures have helped

72. Fig. 8-18, p. 171

73. Case Study: Protecting Whales (1) Easy to kill International Whaling Commission –Sets quotas –Often ignored –No enforcement powers 1986: Whaling ban, although violated, greatly decreased whale kills

74. Case Study: Protecting Whales (2) Key countries that violate whaling ban –Japan –Norway –Iceland

75. Fig. 8-19, p. 172

76. Establish Wildlife Refuges National Wildlife Refuge System Wetland refuges: ~75% 40 million American visitors 20% of listed species in refuge system Many refuges in disrepair, and many allow mining, oil drilling, and off-road vehicles

77. Storing Genetic Information Gene or seed banks Botanical gardens and arboreta Farms – commercial sale of endangered species removes pressure

78. Zoos and Aquariums for Protection Collect species with long-term goal of returning them into habitat Egg pulling Captive breeding 100–500 captive individuals to avoid extinction 10,000 individuals to maintain capacity for biological evolution

79. Case Study: Trying to Save the California Condor Last 22 individuals captured Released a few at a time 2009: 167 condors in the wild Threatened by lead poisoning from animal carcasses and gut piles

80. The Precautionary Principle When substantial preliminary evidence indicates an activity could harm humans or the environment, we should take precautionary measures to prevent or reduce the harm Do even if cause-and-effect relationships are not yet clearly established “Better safe than sorry”