1. © Cengage Learning 2015 LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT, 18e G. TYLER MILLER SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN © Cengage Learning 2015 9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services

2. © Cengage Learning 2015 Bees play a key role in pollination Globally, about one third of the food supply comes from insect-pollinated plants Currently, agriculture depends heavily on a single species of bee –Suffering from Colony Collapse Disorder Each year, 30-50% of colonies in Europe and the U.S. Watch this Bee CCD Viddy… Core Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?

3. © Cengage Learning 2015 Failure to protect honeybees –Loss of vital ecosystem services Farmers are: –Breeding bees resistant to harmful parasitic mites and fungi –Raising their own colonies –Improving bee nutrition Case Study: Protecting Honeybees and Other Pollinators

4. Honeybee Fig. 9-1, p. 190

5. © Cengage Learning 2015 Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900 Commercial hunters used "stool pigeons” (decoy), giant nets, or setting fire to nesting trees Archeological record shows evidence of five mass extinctions Human activities: hastening more extinctions? Core Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever

6. © Cengage Learning 2015 Human activity has disturbed at least half of the earth’s land surface –Fills in wetlands –Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas Degraded aquatic biodiversity in a wide array of ways Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Biodiversity

7. © Cengage Learning 2015 Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth –By the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times higher than that background rate 9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services?

8. © Cengage Learning 2015 Background extinction – continuous low level extinctions which occur naturally (without human involvement, since beginning of time…) Extinction rate – the percent or number of species that go extinct in a certain time period Mass extinction (50-90% of species) Causes? Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply

9. © Cengage Learning 2015 Biological extinction –No species member alive Trophic cascade - Trophic cascades occur when predators limit the density and/or behavior of their prey and thereby enhance survival of the next lower trophic level. Mass extinction –Many species in a short amount of time Levels of Species Extinction

10. © Cengage Learning 2015 Background extinction rate –1 extinct species / 1 million species / year (based on studies of marine fossils, since humans are a “young” species..) Extinction rates have risen recently Using data for recent extinctions among birds and mammals (which are pretty well known), we can estimate that about 1% of species go extinct every 100 years. This means that about 1 in every 10,000 species are currently going extinct each year. These estimates suggest that the current extinction rate is about 100-1000 times greater than the background rate. Other estimates that have been made range from about 40 times the background rate, to 10,000 times the background rate. Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services

11. © Cengage Learning 2015 Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities

12. © Cengage Learning 2015 Rate of extinction and threats to ecosystem services likely to rise sharply in the next 50-100 years –Due to harmful human impacts Biodiversity hotspots –Extinction rates projected to be much higher than average Biologically diverse environments are being eliminated or fragmented Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services (cont’d.)

13. © Cengage Learning 2015 Effects of a 0.1% Extinction Rate

14. © Cengage Learning 2015 Endangered species –So few members that the species could soon become extinct Threatened species (vulnerable species) –Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining –May soon be endangered Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms

15. © Cengage Learning 2015 Regionally extinct –In areas a species is normally found Functionally (ecologically) extinct –To the point at which species can no longer play a functional role in the ecosystem Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (cont’d.)

16. Fig. 9-2, p. 193

17. © Cengage Learning 2015 Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

18. © Cengage Learning 2015 Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Ecological and Biological Extinction

19. © Cengage Learning 2015 Percentage of Various Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

20. © Cengage Learning 2015 We should avoid speeding up the extinction of wild species because: –Of the ecosystem and economic services they provide –It can take millions of years for nature to recover from large-scale extinctions –Many people believe that species have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us (ethics) 9-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of Species Extinction?

21. © Cengage Learning 2015 Major reasons to prevent extinctions Species provide vital ecosystem services –Help keep us alive and support our economies Many species also contribute economic services –Plants for food, fuel, lumber, and medicine –Ecotourism Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital

22. © Cengage Learning 2015 It will take 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity after this century’s extinctions Many people believe species have an intrinsic right to exist How do we decide which species to protect? Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (cont’d.)

23. Fig. 9-6, p. 196 Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicides Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment Nature’s Pharmacy

24. Fig. 9-7, p. 196 Many species of wildlife such as this endangered hyacinth macaw in Mato Grosso, Brazil, are sources of beauty and pleasure. It is endangered because of habitat loss and illegal capture in the wild by pet traders.

25. © Cengage Learning 2015 The greatest threats to any species are (in order): –Loss or degradation of its habitat –Harmful invasive species –Human population growth –Pollution –Climate change –Overexploitation 9-3 How Are We Threatening Species and Ecosystem Services?

26. © Cengage Learning 2015 Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation Invasive (nonnative) species Population and resource use growth Pollution Climate change Overexploitation Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO

27. © Cengage Learning 2015 Habitat fragmentation –Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, and urban development National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species (cont’d.)

28. © Cengage Learning 2015 Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of World Species

29. Stepped Art Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today Fig. 9-8, p. 198 Natural capital degradation: These maps reveal the reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of severe habitat loss and fragmentation and illegal hunting for some of their valuable body parts. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for human habitation and farming? Explain.

30. © Cengage Learning 2015 Many species introductions are beneficial Nonnative species may have no natural: –Predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens Nonnative species can crowd out native species –Invasive species We Have Moved Disruptive Species into Some Ecosystems

31. Stepped Art Deliberately introduced species Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) NutriaSalt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad (Giant toad) Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Accidentally introduced species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long- horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Fig. 9-9, p. 199 These are some of the estimated 7,100 harmful invasive species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States.

32. © Cengage Learning 2015 Imported from Japan in the 1930s –Help control soil erosion Very difficult to kill Could there be benefits of kudzu? Kudzu bug – imported from Japan –Can kill Kudzu vine –Also kills soybeans Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu Bugs

33. Fig. 9-10, p. 200 Kudzu has grown over this car in the U.S. state of Georgia

34. © Cengage Learning 2015 Argentina fire ant – introduced in the 1930s –Reduced populations of native ants –Painful stings can kill –Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions –Tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems

35. © Cengage Learning 2015 Accidentally introduced Reproduce rapidly and are hard to kill Greatly depleted Everglades populations of: –Rabbits, foxes, raccoons, opossums, and deer * The next slide shows University of Florida researchers holding a 15 foot long Burmese Python, caught in the everglades after it had eaten a 6 foot long American Alligator Case Study: Burmese Pythons Are Eating Their Way through the Florida Everglades

36. © Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 9-11, p. 201

37. © Cengage Learning 2015 Research programs identifying invaders Establishing international treaties banning transfer between countries Public education about exotic pets and plants What else can be done to prevent invasive species? Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species

38. Fig. 9-12, p. 202

39. © Cengage Learning 2015 Human population growth and overconsumption –Degrading habitat Pollution –Bioaccumulation can cause extinctions of species not directly affected by pollution Climate change –Some species will become extinct, some will spread Other Causes of Species Extinctions

40. Stepped Art DDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 ppt DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm Fig. 9-13, p. 202

41. © Cengage Learning 2015 Live only in the Arctic Arctic ice is melting –Decreasing polar bear habitat –Polar bears must swim farther between ice Weaker females; less reproduction Case Study: Polar Bears and Climate Change

42. © Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 9-14, p. 204

43. © Cengage Learning 2015 Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants –Animal parts –Pets –Plants for landscaping and enjoyment Prevention –Research and education Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity

44. Fig. 9-15, p. 205

45. © Cengage Learning 2015 West and Central African wild animals –Supply major cities with exotic meats Hunting has driven one species to extinction –Miss Waldron’s red colobus monkey Threatened species: –Monkeys, apes, antelope, elephants, and hippos A Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens Some African Species

46. © Cengage Learning 2015 Bush Meat: Lowland Gorilla

47. © Cengage Learning 2015 70% of the world’s bird species are declining Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats –Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species –These species eat the birds Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds

48. © Cengage Learning 2015 Exposure to pesticides Overexploitation –For pets Birds are indicator species –Respond quickly to environmental changes Birds perform critical ecosystem and economic services –Extinctions could affect many other species Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (cont’d.)

49. Fig. 9-17, p. 206 This endangered Attwater’s prairie chicken lives in a wildlife refuge in the U.S. state of Texas.

50. © Cengage Learning 2015 We can reduce species extinction and sustain ecosystem services by: –Establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international treaties –Creating protected wildlife sanctuaries –Taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm 9-4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and Their Ecosystem Services?

51. © Cengage Learning 2015 9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (1) We can use existing environmental laws and treaties and work to enact new laws designed to prevent species extinction and protect overall biodiversity. We can help to prevent species extinction by creating and maintaining wildlife refuges, gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums.

52. © Cengage Learning 2015 9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (2) According to the precautionary principle, we should take measures to prevent or reduce harm to the environment and to human health, even if some of the cause- and-effect relationships have not been fully established, scientifically.

53. © Cengage Learning 2015 1975 – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) –Signed by 172 countries Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD) –Focuses on ecosystems –Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.) International Treaties and National Laws Help to Protect Species

54. © Cengage Learning 2015 Endangered Species Act (ESA) – 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988 –Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act

55. © Cengage Learning 2015 Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1983, and 1985 – Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad and outlaws the sale of these species or products made from these species Hot Spots – areas of especially rare and imperiled species Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) colony – allows habitat destruction in exchange for habitat conservation/protections elsewhereESA

56. © Cengage Learning 2015 Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from funding or authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered or threatened species –In 2012, 1,394 species officially listed Offer incentives to private property owners to help Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.)

57. © Cengage Learning 2015 Is the ESA a failure? –Species are listed only when in serious danger –Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or improving –Budget is about 57 cents per U.S. citizen Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.)

58. © Cengage Learning 2015 Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (2) Mixed reviews of the ESA –Weaken it –Repeal it –Modify it –Strengthen it –Simplify it –Streamline it

59. © Cengage Learning 2015 Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (2) Suggested changes to ESA –Increase the budget –Develop recovery plans more quickly –Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat

60. © Cengage Learning 2015 Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species

61. Fig. 9-19, p. 209 The American bald eagle has been removed from the U.S. endangered species list. Here, an eagle is about to catch a fish in its powerful talons.

62. © Cengage Learning 2015 In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal wildlife refuge –Pelican Island, Florida Wildlife refuges –Most are wetland sanctuaries –More needed for endangered plants –Are not immune from disturbance We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas

63. Fig. 9-20, p. 210

64. © Cengage Learning 2015 Seed banks –Preserve genetic material of endangered plants Botanical gardens and arboreta –Living plants Farms can raise organisms for commercial sale Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species

65. © Cengage Learning 2015 Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species –Egg pulling –Captive breeding –Artificial insemination –Embryo transfer –Use of incubators –Cross-fostering Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species

66. © Cengage Learning 2015 Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing populations to the wild Limited space and funds Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (cont’d.)

67. Fig. 9-21, p. 211 The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California (USA), contains this tidewater pool, which is used to train rescued sea otter pups to survive in the wild.

68. © Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 9-22, p. 212

69. © Cengage Learning 2015 Precautionary principle –Act to prevent or reduce harm when preliminary evidence indicates acting is needed Species are the primary components of biodiversity Should we focus on the preservation of species or the preservation of ecosystems? The Precautionary Principle