Theories of Science 1. What is Science?

What is science? A part of society (macro level) A part of society (macro level) economy, military economy, military organizations, administration organizations, administration culture, politics culture, politics Institutional systems (meso level) Institutional systems (meso level) research and education research and education technological innovations, product development technological innovations, product development Forms of knowledge (micro level) Forms of knowledge (micro level) theoretical: academic disciplines theoretical: academic disciplines practical: skills, competence practical: skills, competence ethical: values, assessment ethical: values, assessment

The social functions of science Economic (natural and engineering sciences) Economic (natural and engineering sciences) ” useful knowledge” (Francis Bacon), artefacts Social (social sciences) Social (social sciences) ”positive knowledge” (August Comte), facts ”positive knowledge” (August Comte), facts Cultural (human sciences) Cultural (human sciences) ”enlightenment” (Immanuel Kant), ideas ”enlightenment” (Immanuel Kant), ideas

Natural and engineering sciences forces of production weapons of destruction engines of economic growth sources of market competition

Uses of the social sciences advice for policy making administrative expertise organizational change, or action dealing with (solving) social problems

The humanities in society public education (bildung, bildning) ethical-political debates cultural, or ethnic identity cultivation of democratic values

Scientific institutions Research and educational systems Research and educational systems universities, academic institutions universities, academic institutions Innovation and business systems Innovation and business systems companies, commercial institutions companies, commercial institutions Information systems Information systems journals, communication institutions journals, communication institutions

The research system a tradition of ”academic community” relative autonomy, or independence internal procedures of accountability peer-review quality assessment

Systems of innovation commercial networks dependence on sponsorship external criteria of problem selection economic forms of assessment

Forms of scientific knowledge Theoretical-philosophical (episteme) Theoretical-philosophical (episteme) Practical-technical (techne) Practical-technical (techne) understanding, instrumental rationality understanding, instrumental rationality Ethical-political (fronesis) Ethical-political (fronesis) reason, communicative rationality reason, communicative rationality

Science as theory logical methods of argumentation abstract (cause-effect) rationality search for explanatory laws provisional concept of truth

Science as practice experimental methods experimental methods instrumental (means-ends) rationality instrumental (means-ends) rationality construction of facts construction of facts contextual notion of truth contextual notion of truth