Chapter 4: Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting

Some guiding questions zWhat technological developments led to the birth of broadcasting? zHow did commercial radio networks get started? zHow has radio reinvented itself in the TV age? zWhat are some issues about radio ownership, government regulation, and democracy?

What impact has radio had on 20th-century American culture?

RADIO ESTABLISHED The origin and foundations of today’s broadcast industry (including patterns of ownership and control)

RADIO ORIGINATED the genre model of drama and comedy programming (still used on TV today)

RADIO NEWS created models for newsgathering and electronic journalism

RADIO PROVIDES an example of how the function and format of a mass medium can change to survive

ORIGINS OF THE BROADCASTING INDUSTRY

Technological Inventions z1. Telegraph (1840s) and telephone (1870s) z2. Marconi: invented wireless telegraphy (1894) -- used code, not voice yEstablished British Marconi (1897) and American Marconi (1899)

Technological Inventions z3. Fessenden: first to broadcast human voice on radio waves (1906) z4. DeForest: invented vacuum tube (1907 ) ySold patent to AT&T*

WHO WAS INTERESTED IN EARLY RADIO TECHNOLOGY? What groups had an interest in either the technology or the potential uses of radio?

Early experimental stations (1910s) zEducational, community- oriented zAt some colleges and universities

Amateurs: ham operators (1906-WWI) zPut together their own receiving sets; attempted to tune in shipping messages and to transmit their own messages zSimilar to today’s computer hackers and cyberpunk cultures--on cutting edge of new technology

Companies holding patents to broadcasting technology zGeneral Electric (GE) zWestinghouse zAT&T zUnited Fruit

Shipping Industry zE.g., United Fruit, Inc. had large banana plantations in Central and South America. zNeeded to communicate between ships and main offices onshore

U.S. Navy zNeeded reliable ship-to- ship/shore communications zIn era before WWI, increasing need for defense and other military communications

EARLY REGULATION of the new radio medium by the U.S. Government zWhy did the government need to regulate it? zWhat steps did it take? zHow did this help the industry?

ACTS OF U.S. CONGRESS zWireless Ship Act of 1910 yTo protect ship passengers yGave the radio industry a boost in sales zRadio Act of 1912 yGave U.S. Department of Commerce the power to license private broadcasters and set guidelines for frequencies and power

WORLD WAR I was the central force in the formation of broadcasting : How and why?

When America declared war in 1917, the U.S. Navy seized control of radio zShut down all other uses (especially amateurs) zDeveloped portable radios for field operations

After the war, a big struggle for control of the radio industry zU.S. Navy seized American Marconi stations to eliminate foreign interests zAmateur Radio League opposed Navy's control zU.S. Government wanted to eliminate disputes between GE, Westinghouse, AT&T, etc.

So -- the U.S. Government placed control of the radio industry in the hands of corporate interests by forming the RCA monopoly. WHY?

Formation of Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in 1919: AMERICA’S FIRST BROADCASTING MONOPOLY

What was RCA? a patent pool zAT&T telephone lines zGE & Westinghouse radio transmitters and receivers zUnited Fruit, Inc. patents on components

Purpose of forming RCA: to create American supremacy in communications technology zNationalistic -- no foreign companies allowed zMarconi forced to sell transmitters, stations, and patents to RCA

RCA marketed all radio equipment produced by subsidiary companies. However, internal disputes between GE, Westinghouse, and AT&T continued.

BIRTH OF COMMERCIAL RADIO UNDER RCA

First commercial stations z1920: KDKA, Pittsburgh (Frank Conrad, owned by Westinghouse) z1922: WEAF, New York (owned by AT&T): introduced concept of "toll broadcasting" zBy 1922, 400 stations licensed by Department of Commerce

FORMATION OF NETWORKS zRCA patents pool was legally questionable under antitrust law. zIn 1923, the FTC formally charged RCA with monopolistic practices.

The parties settled out of court. zAT&T agreed to withdraw from broadcasting in zRCA, GE, and Westinghouse formed NBC in zNBC’s stations would be linked by AT&T's phone lines.

NBC went on the air in 1926 with twenty-five affiliated stations zAffiliate: a station connected to the network but not owned by it. zLegally, no single company could own more than seven radio stations. zNBC was, in fact, becoming another monopoly.

NBC grew rapidly zBy 1928, NBC had two affiliates in every area of the country. zSince they were the only game in town, business was booming and profits were high.

So -- in 1928, the NBC network split itself into two networks : zNBC BLUE: carried more high culture: dramas, symphony music zNBC RED: carried more entertainment, popular programming

What about independent stations? zCouldn't provide the high quality programming. zDidn't have the economic resources of a network. zInevitably, other stations attempted to network themselves together -- that's how CBS started (c. 1927).

CBS got off to a shaky start. zWilliam S. Paley bought CBS zNew concepts and strategies zBy the 1930s, CBS competitive with NBC

GOVERNMENT REGULATION: The Radio Act of 1927 established Federal Regulatory Commission (FRC) to regulate all forms of radio communication

The Radio Act of 1927 zRadio was to serve the public interest -- to operate in "the public interest, convenience and necessity" (PICAN Principle), since the public owns the airwaves. zTherefore, the FRC licensed stations to use frequencies, not to own them.

PURPOSE OF U.S. BROADCASTING: to attract audiences for advertisers z“Delivering” consumers to sponsors zProgramming produced as "bait" for consumer zMost radio programs (except news and public affairs) were produced and controlled by sponsors: called single- sponsor system.

How Radio influenced TELEVISION zSingle sponsorship system of commercial radio zProgram segmentation and format zLiveness: real time, sense of immediacy--tradition of broadcast news and sports zContinuing characters-- yIdentification and attachment

HOW DID RADIO RE-INVENT ITSELF in the television age? zAlliance with music recording industry zRise of FORMAT and Top 40 radio (age of the disk jockey) zNational network radio programming zGrowth of TALK RADIO

COMMERCIAL RADIO TODAY zEconomics based upon advertising zNational network radio services provide programming zSpecialized radio formats (Top 40, news/talk, adult contemporary, Spanish language, country, etc.)

NONPROFIT RADIO zPublic Broadcasting Act and Corporation for Public Broadcasting in 1960s: established NPR and PBS zVariety of formats, both traditional and experimental zNPR: distinctive niche in radio news

Alternative Voices in RADIO z1948: Pacifica radio stations began occupying left-wing, radical niche zLow-power stations (10-watt) licensed ; revitalized in 2000 with LPFM service zMicropower “pirate” radio broadcasting