GO131: International Relations Professor Walter Hatch Colby College Environment, Population, Health

Global Interdependence An obvious benefit: growing trade An obvious cost: negative spillovers

Example: Acid rain

Example: Water pollution

Tragedy of the Commons Public good (example: open pasture) How to maintain the public good? The Global Commons: Oceans, Space

Approaches to the Problem Liberal: establishing regimes via interstate bargaining Revolutionary: challenging capitalism by restricting growth

Background 1972: first UN conference on international environmental problems and policies. Stockholm, Sweden. 1982: second UN conference. Nairobi, Kenya. 1992: third UN conference (and first “Earth Summit”). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 2002: fourth UN Conference (second “Earth Summit”). Johannesburg, South Africa.

Case One: Global Warming Global temperatures on rise Cause: emissions from burning of fossil fuels Result: carbon dioxide, methane gas, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrous oxide. “Greenhouse gases” act like glass in a greenhouse

Greenhouse Gases

Climate Change

Real-Life Effects Human health Water supplies Ecosystem

One visible example

States as Problem-Makers CO 2 emissions, 1995

Obstacles to a Solution Domestically, political costs are high: reduced profits, fewer jobs Internationally, political costs are high

States as Problem-Solvers UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Rio 1992) Kyoto Protocol (1997) Binding Target: To reduce emissions in industrialized countries 5% below 1992 levels by 2012 Set national ceilings Complicated market mechanism Give break to developing countries (for now)

Kyoto without the U.S. Treaty needed support from states totaling 55% of global emissions With U.S. opting out (36%), progress stalled But protocol took effect anyway in 2005 Thanks to Russia

Case Two: Ozone Depletion Ozone layer in the atmosphere shields earth from harmful ultra-violet rays Chemicals (primarily CFCs used in refrigeration and aerosol spray) float into the stratosphere

The Ozone Hole

Real-life Effects Higher rates of skin cancer Threat to vegetation, and thus crop yields Eco-system

Obstacles to a Solution Another collective action problem involving a public good Short-term costs for long-term benefit Free-riders gain by allowing the use of CFCs

States as Problem-Solvers US (1978) unilaterally banned the use of CFC propellants in spray cans Canada, Norway, Sweden followed

From Unilateral to Multilateral The Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) The Montreal Protocol (1987) Reduce production of CFCs by 50% by 1998 London Amendments (1990) Eliminate CFCs by 2000 (later: by 1995)

A Relative Success

Case Three: Biodiversity When species become extinct, they stay extinct More than 15,000 species of animal and plant species are now threatened Costs Ecosystem (loss of microorganisms -> loss of arable land) Hurts pharmaceutical industry Jeopardizes food supply

Global Efforts Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1973) Treaty on Biodiversity (1992) Signatories agree to protect habitat Wealthy states pay poor states for rights to use products extracted from rare species in protected habitats U.S. opted out (along with nine other small countries)

Marine Mammals

International Whaling Commission Established in 1946 to regulate whaling Became conservation agency, setting quotas for hunting certain whales Voluntary participation Norway and Japan continue whaling

Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Established in 1950 to regulate tuna fishing industry Became an agency to help conserve dolphins Agreement on international dolphin conservation (1999)

Rain Forests The earth’s lungs Concentrated in global south (Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Madagascar) ODA to encourage preservation “debt for nature” swaps

Oceans Global commons 70 percent of earth’s surface Problem of free-riding Drift nets Enclosure UNCLOS

A decade of treaty negotiations ( ) Rules on territorial waters US refused to sign until 1994

Antarctica A common resource Antarctic Treaty (1959)

Global Population

Out of Control? From 6.2 billion today to as much as 8 billion in million new people each year Global south will contribute 97 percent of this population growth

Can economic growth be sustained? Exhausting Mother Earth’s “carrying capacity” Agenda 21 (1992) Commission on Sustainable Development (1992)

HIV/AIDS Global South Southern Africa Swaziland: 38.8 percent of the adult population

Life Expectancy: “Demographic fatigue?” Botswana: from 61 years in 1990 to 44 in 1999 to 39.7 in 2004 Zambia: 32.4 years

Turning it Around

Other diseases Tuberculosis: 1.5 million die each year Malaria: Up to 1.5 million die each year

Water Shortages 1.1 billion people now lack daily access to clean drinking water WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for All)