Qualitative Research Design

Questions What are the philosophical assumptions that underpin this approach? What are the philosophical assumptions that underpin this approach? i.e., what is the nature of the research? What is the methodological basis of this approach? What is the methodological basis of this approach? i.e., how will it be operationalised ?

Methodological questions preferred approaches/key aspects of research design preferred approaches/key aspects of research design preferred methods of data collection: preferred methods of data collection: sampling sampling methods of obtaining data methods of obtaining data preferred approaches to handling data: preferred approaches to handling data: analysis analysis maintaining rigour maintaining rigour

Views of reality Fixed, Objective Reality logical and empirical evidence: logical and empirical evidence: e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology; experimental action research ('action science'); experimental case studies e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology; experimental action research ('action science'); experimental case studies Multiple, Subjective Realities understanding and interpretation: understanding and interpretation: e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, collaborative action research, some case study approaches e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, collaborative action research, some case study approaches Mutual, Constructed Realities dialect and reflection: dialect and reflection: e.g., constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approaches e.g., constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approaches

Research design Fixed Fixed research question, hypothesis, sample, instrument and analysis all specified clearly at the outset; do not change: research question, hypothesis, sample, instrument and analysis all specified clearly at the outset; do not change: e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology, some experimental case studies e.g., experiments, surveys, epidemiology, some experimental case studiesFlexible some aspects planned in advance, others develop during study: some aspects planned in advance, others develop during study: e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, some action research (including experimental), case studies e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, some action research (including experimental), case studiesResponsive minimum advance planning, must show links between data and emerging design: minimum advance planning, must show links between data and emerging design: e.g., grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approaches e.g., grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry, feminist research, participative action research, some case study approaches

Sampling 1 Pre-Determined for representativeness and statistical validity (random, quota sample etc; for experiments, surveys, epidemiology) for representativeness and statistical validity (random, quota sample etc; for experiments, surveys, epidemiology) Representativeness: depends on the research question the study is designed to answer. ‘If a given experience is possible, it is also subject to universalization’ (Haugh 1987) for relevance and assumed understanding of phenomenon under review for relevance and assumed understanding of phenomenon under review selective and purposeful samples identified at start of study; e.g., in some case studies; cooperative inquiry; ethnography; phenomenology selective and purposeful samples identified at start of study; e.g., in some case studies; cooperative inquiry; ethnography; phenomenology for pragmatic reasons for pragmatic reasons e.g., for ethical approval, to delimit time period (e.g., for courses of study, funding bodies) e.g., for ethical approval, to delimit time period (e.g., for courses of study, funding bodies)

2 Responsive for reasons of participation, emergent theory-building or mutual sharing, theoretical sampling; 'serial and contingent', e.g., in grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry for reasons of participation, emergent theory-building or mutual sharing, theoretical sampling; 'serial and contingent', e.g., in grounded theory, constructivism, co-operative inquiry 3 Cyclical clearly defined patterns and phases for specifying and drawing samples, action research, some case studies, constructivist evaluations clearly defined patterns and phases for specifying and drawing samples, action research, some case studies, constructivist evaluations

Define the question, the participants, the process and your expectations. Delimit the boundaries of the question. Delimit the boundaries of the question. Be clear which ‘people’ you are concerned with. Be clear which ‘people’ you are concerned with. What exactly are you intending to do? What exactly are you intending to do? What do you expect to be said, to appear or to happen? What do you expect to be said, to appear or to happen? Be clear on starting point. Be clear on starting point. Big ‘Q' methodology: participant led or bottom- up; open-ended & flexible.

Issues in qualitative research Developing questions: conceptualization as an ongoing process. Developing questions: conceptualization as an ongoing process. Variables that "grow“. Variables that "grow“. Sampling: Sampling: "Snowball sampling", negative case analysis, theoretical sampling, gaining access & developing relationship. "Snowball sampling", negative case analysis, theoretical sampling, gaining access & developing relationship. Producing data using recursive process of gathering maximum information from numerous sources: Producing data using recursive process of gathering maximum information from numerous sources: Type of data: Type of data: Naturalistic data, minimizes data reduction- comprehensive record of participants’ words & actions. Naturalistic data, minimizes data reduction- comprehensive record of participants’ words & actions. Data analysis as ongoing process Data analysis as ongoing process Issues of validity and reliability Issues of validity and reliability Ethical issues, e.g., role conflict of the researcher. Ethical issues, e.g., role conflict of the researcher.

Methodologies and traditions in qualitative research Grounded theory Grounded theory Phenomenology & Interpretative phenomenological analysis Phenomenology & Interpretative phenomenological analysis Ethnography Ethnography Discourse analysis Discourse analysis Conversation analysis Conversation analysis Interpretive Interaction Interpretive Interaction Narrative psychology Narrative psychology Feminist Postmodernism Feminist Postmodernism Hermeneutics Hermeneutics …

Research Design and Data Collection Strategies Eisner 1991: a "paucity of methodological prescriptions" for qualitative research, as premium placed on the strengths of the researcher rather than on standardization. Lincoln and Guba detailed outline for the design of naturalistic inquiry: 1. Determine a focus for the inquiry. 2. Determine the fit of the research paradigm to the research focus. 3. Determine where and from whom data will be collected. 4. Determine what the successive phases of the inquiry will be. 5. Determine what additional instrumentation may be used, beyond the researcher as the human instrument. 6. Plan data collection and recording modes. 7. Plan which data analysis procedures will be used. 8. Plan the logistics of data collection, including scheduling and budgeting. 9. Plan the techniques that will be used to determine trustworthiness.

Sampling strategies for qualitative researchers Qualitative inquiry uses purposeful sampling Patton types of purposeful sampling, Lincoln and Guba (1985)- maximum variation sampling: shared patterns that cut across cases.

Three types of sampling error: distortions caused by insufficient breadth in sampling; distortions caused by insufficient breadth in sampling; distortions introduced by changes over time; distortions introduced by changes over time; distortions caused by lack of depth in data collection at each site. distortions caused by lack of depth in data collection at each site.

Data Collection Techniques 2 main forms: Interviews.Observation.

Interviews Primary strategy, or in conjunction with observation, document analysis, or other techniques. Primary strategy, or in conjunction with observation, document analysis, or other techniques. uses open-ended questions that allow for individual variations. uses open-ended questions that allow for individual variations. Three types: 1) informal, conversational; 2) semi-structured; and 3) standardized, open-ended. Interview guide or "schedule" - list of questions or general to be explored during each interview. Recording Data. written notes or recorder written notes or recorder

Observations Observation of participants in the context of a natural scene. observational data used for the purpose of description observational data used for the purpose of description leads to deeper understandings than interviews alone leads to deeper understandings than interviews alone skilled observer is trained in the process of monitoring both verbal and nonverbal cues, and in the use of concrete, unambiguous, descriptive language. skilled observer is trained in the process of monitoring both verbal and nonverbal cues, and in the use of concrete, unambiguous, descriptive language.

Several observation strategies available: watch from outside, without being observed. watch from outside, without being observed. maintain a passive presence. maintain a passive presence. engage in limited interaction. engage in limited interaction. more active control over the observation. more active control over the observation. act as a full participant in the situation. act as a full participant in the situation.

Advantages, disadvantages and concerns attached to each strategy: presence of an observer introduces a distortion of the natural scene presence of an observer introduces a distortion of the natural scene Critical decisions dependent on the unique set of questions and resources brought to each study Critical decisions dependent on the unique set of questions and resources brought to each study legal and ethical responsibilities. legal and ethical responsibilities. Recording Data. Field notes, may also use photographs, videotapes, and audio tapes. Field notes, may also use photographs, videotapes, and audio tapes.

Other Sources of Data Analysis of documents, hermeneutic inquiry. Deciding When to Stop Sampling Few strict guidelines. 1) exhaustion of resources; 2) emergence of regularities; 3) overextension. research goals, achieve depth through triangulation of data sources, greater breadth through examination of a variety of sampling sites.

Purpose of Study Research question Research strategy Examples of data collection techniques EXPLORATORY to investigate little understood phenomena to identify or discover important variables to generate hypotheses for further research What is happening in this social program? What are the salient themes or patterns in participants’ meaning structures? How are these patterns linked with one another? Case study Field study Participant observation In-depth interviewing Elite interviewing EXPLANATORY to explain the forces causing the phenomena in question to identify plausible causal networks shaping the phenomenon What events, beliefs, attitudes, policies are shaping this phenomenon? How do these forces interact to result in the phenomenon? Multisite case study History Field study Participant observation In-depth interviews Survey questionnaire Document analysis

DESCRIPTIVE to document the phenomenon of interest What are the salient behaviors, events, beliefs, attitudes, structures, processes occurring in this phenomenon? Field study Case study Participant observation In-depth interviews Document analysis Unobstrusive measures Survey questionnaire PREDICTIVE to predict the outcomes of the phenomenon to forecast the events and behaviors resulting from the phenomenon What will occur as a result of this phenomenon? ExperimentQuasi-experiment Survey questionnaire (representative sample) Proxemics/kinesics Content analysis