1. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications Chapter Eleven Watching And Listening: Qualitative Research For In-depth Understanding

2. Key Concepts Primary interest is in people’s subjectivity. Emphasis on capturing participant viewpoints. Reporting often uses participant’s language. Qualitative more than quantitative. Theories about human communication may emerge from research rather than being a starting point. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

3. Observational Methods Advantages & Disadvantages AdvantagesDisadvantages In-depth exploration of attitudes and behavior. May be difficult to access participants. Validity.Reliability. Access to participants’ views of phenomena. Research outcomes affected by researcher-participant relationships. Provide insight and explanation.May be time-consuming. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

4. Qualitative & Quantitative Research Similarities ▫Begin with qualitative observations ▫Emphasis on precise reporting. Differences ▫Qualitative: reporting in words, understanding in depth, emphasis on participant perspectives, judgmental sampling. ▫Quantitative: reporting in numbers, understanding in breadth, statistical sampling, generalizing from samples. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

5. Watching and Listening Methods Interviews Focus groups Ethnography Observational studies Unobtrusive measures Conversation analysis Case studies Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

6. Observational Methods: Basic Assumptions Individuality and subjectivity of each participant is important. Participants are assumed to have insights and perspectives the researcher is unaware of. Interpretation and meaning are more important than information. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

7. Ethnography: Key Ideas Focus on meaning and interpretation. Conduct research in participants’ own settings. Engage directly with participants. Focus on local, individual, subjective knowledge. Record participants’ own language, concepts and logic. Report results as detailed description. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

8. Basic Researcher-Participant Relationships Complete observer. Observer as participant. Participant as observer. Complete participant. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

9. Terminology Participant ▫volunteer in a research project. Informant ▫can speak about others as well as themselves. Respondent ▫speaks only for himself or herself. Interviewee ▫anyone interviewed. Subject ▫participant in experimental research. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

10. Interview A series of questions designed to elicit information a researcher is interested in. Questions may be – Predetermined and specific ▫for example, a survey questionnaire or Flexible and open-ended ▫for example, “Tell me about...? ” Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

11. Interview: Strategy & Decisions Strategy: ▫Generally a “master” question and then specific questions to “check it out.” Decisions: ▫Setting ▫Sensitivities ▫Structure ▫Sequence Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

12. Interview: Decisions - cont. Setting ▫Participants’ or researcher’s location. Sensitivities ▫Dress, language, gender, status. Structure ▫Fully, partially, or unstructured. Sequence ▫Funnel or inverted funnel. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

13. Interview: Types of Questions Descriptive ▫Ask participants to describe. e.g. “What is a typical ____ like, for you? Structural ▫Ask participants to explain relationships. e.g. Would you describe X as part of Y? Contrast ▫Ask participants to describe similarities, differences or relative importance. e.g. “What is the difference between X and Y? Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

14. Focus Group: Assumptions Group discussion can generate -  More information than interviewing individuals.  Different information than interviewing individuals  A “2+2 = 5” effect  Ideas the researcher may not have considered. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

15. Focus Group: Success Members - recruited for similar knowledge but divergent views of the topic. Objectives - clear. Atmosphere - relaxed. Discussion - free-wheeling. Moderator: ▫listens ▫maintains focus ▫refrains from discussion ▫ensures every member participates. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

16. Analyzing Qualitative Data Most analyses use categorization. Fixed Coding ▫Assigns units of information to theoretically-determined categories. Flexible Coding ▫Allows additional categories to emerge during analysis. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

17. Analyzing Qualitative Data – cont. The Grounded Theory Approach – Assumes theory will emerge as data analysis proceeds. Uses the “constant comparative method.” ▫Test each new statement or idea against initial categories. ▫Rework categories as data analysis proceeds. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

18. Unobtrusive Measures Observing people without them being aware of the observation. Why? ▫To assess differences between what people tell us and what they actually do. Examples – ▫Observing crowd behavior at sports events. ▫Observing social behavior at parties. ▫Observing group problem solving. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

19. Conversation Analysis Studies the processes that enable people to converse successfully. Analyzes transcripts of conversations to determine how people negotiate understanding. Focuses on social acts more than language. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

20. Case Study Brings all relevant information into a story to help readers learn how organizations or individuals managed a project, problem or crisis. Usually – uses multiple sources of evidence focuses on a specific issue provides in-depth understanding more than generalization or prediction. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

21. Chapter Summary Watching and Listening Methods – General interest in people’s idiosyncratic, subjective views. Begin with theory, or allow theory to emerge. Preference for eliciting people’s views in their own words. Typically reported in participants’ language. Observation provides a check on whether people’s words match their behavior. Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

22. Vocabulary Review Acts Analytic notes Case study Categorization Communicativ e act Communicativ e style Contrast questions Conversation analysis Descriptive notes Descriptive questions Ends Ethnography Ethnography of communicatio n Fixed coding Flexible coding Focus groups Fully structured interview Gatekeepers Genres Grounded theory Informant Instrumentalit y Interviewee Interviews Key Key informants Method notes Moderator Norms Observational study Participant Prompts Respondent Semistructured interview Sequence Setting Situation Speech community Speech event Speech situation Structural questions Structure Subjects Unstructured interview Uses and gratifications theory Ways of speaking Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications

23. Web Resources Forum: Qualitative Social Research - http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs Qualitative Research Consultants Association http://www.qrca.org University of Surrey, social research update - http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/ Introducing Communication Research 2e © 2014 SAGE Publications