Music psychology, musicology, musical practice Richard Parncutt University of Graz Winter semester 2006

Aims Cover and analyse interdisciplinary research between music psychology and musicology music psychology and music practice that has been done could be done Focus on the big picture Detail is important but not the main focus Consider potential areas for future research More questions than answers

Tentative plan (1) date topic 11.10.06 Current trends in music psychology: aims, methods, structure, content 18.10.06 Review of ICMPC Bologna (student presentations) 25.10.06 Current trends in musicology: 8.11.06 Current trends in musical practice (including performance and composition) 15.11.06 Music psychology and music theory 22.11.06 Music psychology and musicology

Tentative plan (2) date topic 29.11.06 Psychology, performance, education 06.12.06 Psychology, performance, education: Early acquisition of musical aural skills 13.12.06 Psychology, theory/analysis, performance, education: Aural analysis for performing musicians: The relationship between accents and expression 20.12.06 Psychology, history, theory: Towards a statistical-perceptual history of western tonal-harmonic syntax 10.01.07 Psychology, ethnology: Emotions and associations evoked by unfamiliar music 17.01.06 Psychology, performance, education: Physics, physiology and psychology of piano performance 24.01.07 written examination

Other recent presentations Disciplines Topic Psychology, performance, education Can researchers help artists? Music performance research for music students Psychology, theory, history Western music history, pitch salience, key profiles, and the origins of tonality Musicology, psychology Interdisciplinary balance, international collaboration, and the future of (German) (historical) musicology

Older presentations and papers Psychology, theory, analysis: Tone profiles following short chord progressions: Top-down or bottom-up? Perception of musical patterns: Ambiguity, emotion, culture Enrichment of music theory pedagogy by computer-based repertoire analysis and perceptual-cognitive theory Middle-out analysis and its psychological basis Perceptual versus historical origins of musical materials Tonality as implication-realization: Key profiles as pitch salience profiles of final triads in Renaissance music Towards a perceptual theory of bebop harmony Perceptual underpinnings of analytic techniques: From Rameau to Terhardt, Riemann to Krumhansl, Schenker to Bregman Tonal implications of atonal music Critical comparison of acoustical and perceptual theories of the origin of musical scales

Why music psychology? Humans spend enormous amounts of time, energy and resources on musical activities that are not directly related to their survival. Why? Humans identify with the music they hear. How and why? Music enhances quality of life. How and why?

Aims of music psychology Description/explanation of musical behaviour musical experience Applications musicology psychology musical practice

Musical relevance of music psychology Music theory and aesthetics perception of musical structures empirical testing of philosophical theories Music education and performance applied developmental music psychology musical skills and techniques Music history history of musical syntax personalities of composers and their music Ethnomusicology musical behaviours, cognition and experience in different cultures

Empirical methods of (music) psychology Quantitative methods Data are numbers Statistical analysis by computer Probability of obtaining result by chance Standard in cognitive psychology Qualitative methods Data are text Content analysis Exploratory: main themes Bridge between sciences and humanities

Areas of music psychology Behaviours Skills Development Perception of structure Performance Empirical aesthetics Social psychology Evolutionary music psychology

Musical behaviors Performing Composing Listening Dancing Cognitive engagement Emotional responses

Musical skills learning a musical instrument singing in a choir playing by ear and imagining music sightreading vs. playing from memory improvising and composing talent – nature or nurture?

Musical development behaviours abilities lifespan

Perception of musical structure melody, phrasing harmony, tonality rhythm, meter

Music performance research The daily lives and challenges of professional and amateur musicians who… perform from scores or by improvising alone or in groups, compose or arrange on paper with computers

Empirical music aesthetics Dependence of musical preferences/judgments on musical structure social influences

Social psychology of music everyday music listening while driving, eating, shopping, reading... musical rituals and gatherings religious, festive, sporting, political... music and identity personal group

Evolutionary music psychology Adaptation or exaptation? evolutionary parasites protomusic in non-human animals Individual survival music and non-musical abilities Group survival music as “social glue” Music, ritual, spirituality, trance mother-infant communication

Subdisciplines of psychology Biopsychology neuropsychology Psychobiology and evolutionary psychology genetic and biological bases of behaviour Perception sensation, psychoacoustics Cognition language, thinking, consciousness, learning, memory Motivation and emotion Development childhood and life-span individual differences personality skill talent, creativity, intelligence social psychology and cognition health stress, coping, therapy, psychological disorders

Music psychology sources Books Journals Conferences

Recent general books ICMPC Bologna 2006 De la Motte-Haber, Helga Abstract booklet; proceedings in internet De la Motte-Haber, Helga Musikpsychologie Oerter & Stoffer Spezielle Musikpsychologie Stoffer & Oerter Allgemeine Musikpsychologie Deutsch, Diana The psychology of music Bruhn, Herbert Handbuch Musikpsychologie

Main journals Music psychology Systematic musicology Other Music Perception (MuWi-IB) Psychology of Music (KUG-UB) Jahrbuch Musikpsychologie (MuWi- IB) Systematic musicology Musicae Scientiae (MuWi-IB) Journal of New Music Research (MuWi-IB) Other Psychomusicology Empirical Musicology Review Codex Flores

Journals in related disciplines Psychology Psychological Review etc. Neuroscience Nature Neuroscience Acoustics and psychoacoustics Journal of the Acoustical Society of America Acta Acustica Computing Computer Music Journal Computing in Musicology Science in general Nature, science

Music journals Music theory/analysis Music performance, e.g. Music Theory Spectrum Music Analysis etc. Music performance, e.g. Music Performance Research Journal of Research in Singing

Applied music journals Music therapy Journal of Music Therapy etc. Music education Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Music medicine Medical Problems of Performing Artists

Music Psychology conferences Global International Conference of Music Perception and Cognition Continental European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music Society for Music Perception and Cognition (USA) Regional Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musikpsychologie Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (UK) International Symposium on Cognition and Musical Arts (Brazil) Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition Australian Music and Psychology Society Asia-Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music

General information http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/staff/parncutt /musicpsychology.html

Aims, methods, structure and content of modern musicology 25.10.06

Structure of today‘s presentation Definitions of “musicology” Structure of musicology Musicological interdisciplinarity

Definitions of “musicology” Part 1 Definitions of “musicology” in theory in practice

“Musicology” in theory (all) scholarship about (all) music? Grove MGG Dizionario della musica e dei musicisti

Musicological subdisciplines Core disciplines performance, composition, theory, analysis Parent disciplines acoustics, computing, multimedia, sociology, cultural studies, feminism and gender, history, anthropology/ethnology, psychology, physiology/medicine, education, therapy… Any academic discipline that is serious and established capable of explaining musical phenomena

“Musicology” in practice music history of western cultural elites sources: historical documents associated methods and techniques tradition since 19th century

“Musicology” journals Acta musicologica Archiv für Musikwissenschaft Current Musicology Journal of the American Musicological Society Journal of Musicological Research Journal of Musicology Musikforschung Revue de Musicologie Studien zur Musikwissenschaft ... plus many musicology journals of smaller countries

Tacit assumptions of “musicology” (Obviously) (more) important: history western culture and music music of cultural elites Eurocentricity? 19th-century colonialism?

Solutions: Journals Acknowledge problem in preface Change name, e.g. Western Music Western Artificial Music History of Notated Western Music Change scope of journal

Part 2 The structure of musicology history of musical thought sciences and humanities the tripartite model the evolution of disciplinary structures

History of musical thought Ancient civilisations physics/mathematics (number ratios) psychology (emotion) Middle ages in Europe quadrivium : arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, “music” 18th and 19th centuries central position of history for national identity 20th century expansion, diversification 21st century All musics, all appropriate questions and disciplines

The relationship between musicological subdisciplines historical systematic ethnological 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

History of musical thought Antiquity and middle ages: antecedents of music theory, acoustics and psychology mathematical philosophy of intervals and scales 19th century: music history plus auxiliary disciplines historical musicology music theory and analysis systematic musicology Now: all disciplinary approaches to all questions about all musics repertoires and their contexts general phenomena and their foundations history pop jazz ethnology ana-lysis the-ory socio-logy psychology   acoustics physiology media aesthetics, cultural studies, feminism and gender studies computing philosophy

The central position of historical musicology in the 19th century Western music: esthetically superior “Music”: written works of the western canon The main task of “musicology”: document the artistry of white male genius

Humanities and sciences: differences The tension between subjectivity and objectivity 1. The object of research humanities: researcher‘s own experience sciences: the external world 2. The distance between researcher and object humanities: close (hermeneutics) sciences: distant (data analysis) 3. The generality of conclusions humanities: complex, specific descriptions sciences: simple, general descriptions Example : music psychology The objective versus the subjective approach

Les sciences humaines et naturelles : les points communs La recherche de la « verité » intersubjectivité rationalité compréhension par explication La compréhension des relations causalité prévision La diversité épistémologique méthodologique

Les sciences humaines et naturelles : un rapport synergétique sciences naturelles idées créatives et bien fondées  évaluations empiriques conséquences académiques, culturelles, sociales  découvertes

Les sciences humaines et naturelles : L‘histoire de leur relation XIXe siècle : domination des sciences humaines XXe siècle : domination des sciences naturelles XXIe siècle : domination des sciences informatiques ? nouvel équilibre entre sciences humaines et naturelles… en général? en musicologie?

Les sciences humaines et naturelles : importance rélative rôle central de la culture identité qualité de la vie Les sciences naturelles : rôle central de la technologie : qualité de vie quotidienne guerre et environnement  l’autodestruction de l’humanité

Repertoire-based musicologies: Trends “Musicology” Ethnomusicology “music” score part of culture readership “musicologists” interdisciplinary repertory lost disappearing focus composer, score performance concepts individual, idiosyncratic, history, development, musical autonomy, formal unity culture, typical, tradition, change, social function, cultural uniqueness authority scholar informants Source: Jonathan Stock , Current Musicology, 1998

“musicology” / theory / ethnomusicology Tripartite model: USA “musicology” / theory / ethnomusicology Problems: “musical sciences” are not “musicology” too little communication between musicology/theory and ethnomusicology

Tripartite model: Germany historical systematic ethno- (tacit) def. western cultural elites mus contexts sciences, abstract, interdisciplinary mus. phenomena non-western, non-elite mus. contexts modern content analysis; periods, genres; cult. stud. acoustics, psychology, sociology; aesthetics, philosophy, physiology, media, computing... elite, popular, folk; continents, regions, genres, subcultures prob-lems (none) remainder? auxiliary? larger and more diverse fewer professorships?

(German) Tripartite model: Problems not justified: central position of history of western cultural elites not integrated: musical practice not classified: theory, gender, jazz/pop, prehistory not enough: communication among subdisciplines not unified: musicology

A personal apology I love the “western bourgeous canon” History is not less important!!! Aim: new balance

Systematic musicology Humanities “cultural musicology” Sciences “scientific musicology”

“Cultural musicology” epistemologies and methods of humanities subjective introspective, intuitive, intersubjective philosophical logical, aesthetic, epistemological, ethical, metaphysical paradigms and subdisciplines philosophical aesthetics music criticism theoretical sociology semiotics hermeneutics deconstruction postmodernism cultural and gender studies

“Scientific musicology” scientific epistemologies and methods empirical and data-oriented prediction of future data by means of models subdisciplines physiology and neurosciences empirical psychology and sociology cognitive sciences computing and technology

Evolution of disciplinary structures top-down regulate categorize authoritarian bottom-up explore quasi-random „natural“

Musicology: Alternative structure A specifically musical theory, analysis, composition, performance humanities history, cultural studies, philosophy sciences acoustics, psychology, physiology, media, computing mixtures sociology, anthropology, prehistory practice education, medicine, therapy

Musicology: Alternative structure B status focus examples core “music itself” theory, analysis, composition, performance central musical contexts and phenomena acoustics, anthropology, cult.stud., history, psychology, sociology peripheral support of core and central computing, psychoacoustics, philosophy, physiology, prehistory neighboring non-mus. culture & communication art, literature, linguistics practical individual needs education, therapy, medicine

L’unité de la musicologie La musicologie est devenue très fragmentée. Comment la (ré-)unir ? Existe-il… des méthodes et des « lois » générales en musicologie ? une épistémologie unifiée de la musicologie ? Dans un programme de musicologie : peut-être En réalité à long terme: peu probable Proposition: L’unité de la musicologie résulte plutôt de sa diversité intrinsèque : Objet : les musiques diverses Méthodes : les sciences « mères » diverses Approche : la collaboration interdisciplinaire

Part 3 Interdisciplinarity in musicology in general

Musicae Scientiae Special edition 2006 Thème 1e discipline 2e discipline Improvisation interactive avec ordinateur éducation musicale intelligence artificielle Psychologie culturelle de la musique psychologie musicale anthropologie culturelle Échelles non occidentales psychoacoustique ethnomusicologie Modernisation de la musique turque sociologie Isométries dans la musique de Ciurlionis histoire de l’art théorie musicale Analyse de style par ordinateur dans la musique du XVe siècle musicologie historique extraction de données musicales Composition a partir de l’acoustique des étoiles physique composition Bases neuronales de l’harmonie neurophysiologie Expression en multimédia musicologie informatique Aphasie musicale linguistique

Interdisciplinarity boundaries of disciplines are fuzzy disciplines are more or less established disciplines are more or less distant not whether ID, but how much degree of ID is a matter of opinion role of collaboration motivation, flexibility, curiosity, daring

Interdisciplinarity in musicology sciences humanities practice content object subject action methods empirical intersubjective trial and error Interdisciplinary challenges: content and method boundaries content-method combinations

Conséquences Nécessité de promouvoir l’interdisciplinarité de façon directe développer des stratégies spécifiques

CIM: The Conferences on Interdisciplinary Musicology Aims Promote human interdisciplinary interaction Reunite musicology Themes (General) (Graz 2004) Timbre (Montreal 2005) Singing (Tallinn 2007) Structure (Thessaloniki 2008) Monophony versus polyphony (Paris 2009) Culture (Sheffield 2010)

Current trends in musical practice including performance and composition relevant for music psychology 25.10.06

Introduction This lecture Terminology surveys current themes is limited to western music and subcultures makes few specific claims postpones music psychology aspects Terminology “classical” = “notated music of western cultural elites”

Rationale Central role of performance in music(ology) Music does not exist unless performed Performance changes the music Music psychology and musicology traditionally focus on perception than performance basic rather than applied research Music performance research is multi- and interdisciplinary theory and practice ethnomusicology, music history, psychology, sociology, acoustics, cultural studies, economics

Main themes Technology Styles and subcultures Authenticity Skills Professional issues

Technology Recording media: CDs Recording techniques and studios Electronic media in performance

Recording media: CDs CD revolution in 1980s and 90s more compact, easier to use overwhelming diversity of available music Overloads consumers’ memory only remember the few main stars CD labels market only few main stars authenticity backlash (see below)

Recording techniques & studios Sound quality most important for classical and acoustic Creativity of studio engineer Tonmeister as musician

Electronic media in performance Classical and jazz small subgroup of composers and performers strong identity media strongly affect musical content discourse on technology and aesthetics Pop/rock: traditional relationship between media and content strong interest in developing technologies

Styles and subcultures “Classical” Pop/rock Jazz fusions

Classical music: performance Labels market only famous names even in ensemble music The second-highest level very high standard strong competition Mobility performances at distant venues masterclasses with eminent performers

Classical instruments and voice Separate subcultures Voice: Opera versus lied versus early music Piano: solo versus accompaniment Melody instruments: solo versus orchestral

Pop: Styles Musicians identify with substyles: rock, soft rock, pop/rock, R&B, soul, hip hop, trip hop, punk pop, dance ethnic: Brit, Arab, Indi-, C-, J-, K-, Latin, Calypso, Reggae techno: electro, future, noise, synth, Country, easy listening, muzac other: Bubblegum, Christian, Operatic, Sophisti, Turbo-folk stars and periods (1980s…)

Pop: functions Continues to create teenage identities musicians are role models Originality considered important but level is low revival of oldies, cover versions, cover bands Media fascination with celebrities no matter whether musicians of film stars? sexiness more important than art?

Jazz Discussion of musical elements: Musicians identify with genres harmony, tonality, blue notes syncopation, polyrhythms swing, feel call and response, improvisation Musicians identify with genres blues, trad, Dixieland, swing, bebop, hard bop, cool, free, avant-garde, Latin, modal, acid, electronica

Style fusions Many combinations of classical, jazz, pop, traditional music plus substyles “Authentic”? New combination may be original Authentic partial styles may be undermined

Authenticity Performance Composition Classical Pop Jazz

Authenticity in performance In spite of musical diversity and mediocrity: maintenance of personality, spirit, character, identity creativity from within Difficult and worthwhile sheds new light on music, life, values Important for musical “counter cultures” opposition to mainstream Compensation for lack of financial success only the successful are corrupted? Promoted by informal, destroyed by formal learning?

Authenticity in composition “Postmodern” goes beyond violation of compositional standards and expectancies Coherent (or incoherent) style Expression of personality Regard (or disregard) for listener Minimalism versus complexity Apparent lack of composer models

Authenticity in classical music Revival of old instruments repertoires Relation to historical research modern technology and hifi performer’s intuition and emotion the playing and listening experience

Authenticity in pop subcultures independence from commercial forces the musical experience common identity of performers and listeners intolerance of other styles

Authenticity in jazz Jazz as symbol of spiritual freedom Originality Personality Building on and deviating from models (Adorno: a false representation that gives the appearance of authenticity)

Authenticity - overview Conceptual diversity classical: revival of original experience rock: honest communication of identity and values Common thread identification of “genuine” rejection of “fake” specific criteria Why important? music as personal identity

Skills Talent Technique Practice Improvisation Sight reading Memorization Expression and interpretation

Talent Talent versus hard work Talented children relative importance performers’ identity Talented children How teachers recognize and nurture them

Technique Body posture (e.g. Alexander technique) Hand positions Fingering Optimal age of acquisition Relationship to other musical skills Importance relative to interpretation

Practice Takes a lot of time! How to improve efficiency?

Improvisation In all styles: connected to authenticity Role of practice, vocabulary, ice breaking Classical music: revival of tradition that died in 19th century example of modern musician’s flexibility

Sight reading Central for many musicians who constantly learn new repertoire Orchestral Piano accompanists

Memorization (classical) Specific instruments e.g. piano not organ piano solo not ensemble solo singers Methods auditory, kinesthetic, visual memory score analysis Effect on interpretation and reception

Expression and interpretation Importance relative to technique Whether and how to teach it Analytic versus intuitive approach Role models versus individuality Role of body movement Developing a personal voice

Professional issues Medicine Anxiety Education Career path Gender

Music medicine Mainly an issue for classical musicians Taboo status is weakening Few musically qualified doctors Role of stress and repetition Specific ailments for specific instruments Psychological, neurological, muscular, orthopedic (musculoskeletal), dental, dermatological, audiological

Performance anxiety Mainly an issue for classical musicians Taboo status is weakening But few musically qualified therapists

Education (classical) Conservatory culture Cultural differences (oriental versus western students) Music and non-musical skills Practical versus academic courses Technique versus interpretation Individual versus group teaching Analytic versus intuitive teaching styles Practice routines and durations Solo versus ensemble performance Performance versus teaching Listening to recordings, mental practice Selection and evaluation procedures; musicality Career preparation

Career paths A high risk, undervalued profession Classical: Pop, jazz Low social status (not a “serious” profession) Wide range of incomes Dependency on free market and lucky breaks Dream of full-time  reality of part-time Effect on mental and physical health, relationships etc. Classical: many study performance then teach Pop, jazz high dependence on free market

Gender issues Classical Rock/pop Women in Vienna Philharmonic? Female conductors, composers, jazz improvisers Acceptance of androgeny e.g. counter tenors Rock/pop Musicians esp. singers (male/female) as sex objects music video clips as soft pornography Girl bands – strong women, sex objects or both Implications for musical identity

Music psychology and music theory 15.11.06

Music-theoretic traditions Mathematical approach since antiquity Aim: “understand” music and the cosmos Mystic philosophy of string-length ratios Humanities approach since 19th century Aim: understand works of western canon Subjective-empirical, logical-systematic approach Linked to compositional and analytical practice

The role of music psychology Regard music theories as interesting hypotheses Test them experimentally Use results to inform modern music theory, analysis the theme of CIM08 in Thessaloniki

Theory/analysis of structure Specific structures: scales, melody, voice leading, harmony/tonality, rhythm, timbre Structure in general: motivic, formal, reduction, accentuation, temporal development Musical meaning emotion, aesthetics History History of syntax Cultural studies Social and musical structures

Scales in general Scale steps Scales as pitch collections categorical perception of pitch Scales as pitch collections memory limitations for no. of scale steps

Western scales Pentatonic, diatonic, chromatic Major-minor melodic/harmonic octave/fifth relationships JND and smallest practical interval size Major-minor key profiles and statistical learning key tracking perception of triad-scale relationships

Non-Western scales quarter-tones equal-interval quasi-chromatic e.g. Middle East, Persia… equal-interval e.g. Indonesian slendro quasi-chromatic e.g. Indian classical traditions physical vs psychological measurement e.g. African oral traditions (Arom)

Melody and phrasing Pattern recognition, Gestalt principles similarity proximity good continuation etc. Auditory scene analysis (Bregman) segmentation and grouping nature vs nurture

Hierarchical structure and voice leading compound melody and streaming neighbor tones and melodic fusion tonicization and pitch salience diminution and generative grammar key as prolongation of tonic triad Ursatz as schema (Schenker, Lerdahl & Jackendoff)

Contrapuntal conventions Writing melodies pitch proximity (stepwise motion  streaming) Prevalence of chord types promote fusion ( consonance) avoid roughness ( consonance) Prevalence of harmonic intervals avoid fusion ( independence of voices) Voicing of chords doubling: exaggerate differences in pitch salience interval size: masking and roughness (Huron)

Harmony and tonality Harmony: Tonality: Computer tests: perception of pitch of complex tones (Terhardt) Tonality: profiles of stability of scale steps (Krumhansl) Computer tests: root and tonality tracking algorithms

Rhythm and meter Categorical perception of rhythm Pulse perception Perceived versus notated metre Computer test: beat tracking

Timbral structure Theory Method Relation of timbre to: familiar environmental sound sources human voice and phonemes Stream segregation: each stream has a timbre Method Quantitative approaches similarity judgments and multidimensional scaling Qualitative approaches timbre description using everyday language

Motivic/thematic structure Central importance for music analysis “first subject”, “second subject”, leitmotives development and recapitulation of motives Complex models of the similarity of melodic motives categorical boundary between “same” and “different”  difference between repetition and variation

Formal structure Formal functions of musical segments start, middle, end exposition, development, recapitulation Perception of jumbled music experimental finding: order doesn’t matter (!) conflict between philosophical and empirical aesthetics

Reduction Schenkerian reduction accentuation (salience) foreground, middleground, background background is supposed to comprise the most important events largely irrelevant for music performance accentuation (salience) immanent grouping, metrical, harmonic, melodic performed agogic, dynamic, articulatory, timbral This kind of analysis can inform music performance

Structure: Temporal development Local music perception lasting a few seconds Predominates in music psychological experiments Tension/relaxation dissonance, loudness, pitch range, tonality Expectation melodic, harmonic… expections and emotional connotations Prolongation primary and subordinate chords of a progression implied harmonies of a melody

Structure: Emotion and meaning Immanent structures specific structures: appoggiatura, sudden harmonic change, repeated falling fifth progression (Sloboda) analysis by semiotics and hermeneutics The performer’s contribution structural communication expressive timing and dynamics (Repp, Desain, Drake…) emotional communication specific structural cues (Juslin)

Philosophical aesthetics Elitist and abstract explores the experience of experts emphasis on absolute music emphasis on unity of the art work Emphasis on deep meaning cultural identity Emphasis on long-term temporal relationships thematic and tonal

Empirical aesthetics Non-elitist and concrete typical concert audiences, CD listeners role of social and psychological function personal identity Emphasis on local, surface events complexity and familiarity Emphasis on short-term temporal relationships thematic and tonal

Structure: History of syntax History of musical syntax (Eberlein) Process of cultural evolution (Dawkins) Perception develops in parallel with syntax Elements of musical culture (e.g. cadences) are “memes” Syntax develops under combined influence of conventions (e.g. voice-leading rules) perception (e.g. pitch pattern recognition) social constraints (e.g. the church)

Structure: Sociocultural aspects Does hierarchical structure reflect hierarchical society? Interesting for historical, cultural and ethnological musicology as well as music theory

Music psychology and musicology Interactions between music psychology MP and ethnomusicology EM historical musicology HM cultural musicology CM 22.11.06

Today’s aim Explore (possibilites for) fruitful interaction between MP and HM, CM, ME The topic of an ÖGMw conference in Salzburg 2008 Focus mainly on western “classical” music , since more MP research to refer to affords interesting comparisons with HM

MP versus HM, EM, CM Similar aim: description/explanation of musical behaviour musical experience Contrasting methods: subjective versus objective approaches own versus other culture Divergent academic traditions surprisingly little contact considerable potential for productive collaboration

Today’s topics Dance Emotion Personality Talent Composition Creativity Preferences

Dance in musicology EM: HM: Dance and music linked in every known culture – why? Relationships among dance movements and gestures musical meaning (e.g. ritual functions) musical structure HM: Western history of dance forms, genres, structures Aesthetics: Movement character of dance music

Dance in music psychology Relationship between sound & movement Performance gestures Emotional expression Rhythm as virtual movement Cognitive neurosciences, mirror neurones

Emotion in musicology HM: EM: Researcher’s own experience Emotionality of specific repertoire Historical changes in verbalisation of emotion Philosophy of emotion and meaning Hermeneutic approaches EM: Reliance on informants’ reports of experience Role of cultural background including language functions of music social, religious, psychological, healing

Emotion in music psychology Avoided after the “cognitive turn” in the 1960s “Hot topic” since 1990s, e.g. Juslin & Sloboda book Musical versus everyday emotions Everyday: happy, sad, angry, afraid… (“basic”) Musical: nostalgia, magic, moving, excited… Methods Global vs local Questionnaire versus real-time tracking Qualitative descriptors emotions versus associations; slippery linguistic labels Quantitative measures Similarity judements, MDS, dimensions: arousal, valence, salience Bipolar rating scales, semantic differential

Personality MP: dimensions of personality as cause/effect of musical activities and preferences HM: understanding of composers’ personal styles Is a unified musical work a virtual person with specific character traits?

General personality factors Long lists such as warmth, reasoning, social stability, dominance, liveliness, rule consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilences, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, tension (Cattel & Kline, 1977) “big five” (cf. “basic emotions”) neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeables, consciensciousness (Costa & McCrae, 1985) (Kemp)

Personality of musicians Commonalities of (classical western) musicians Introspection  inner world of music Independence  musical originality Preference for complexity  classical tradition Sensitivity  emotional nature of music Trait anxiety  performance anxiety Androgeny  creativity Differences Strings: reserved woodwind: confidence Brass and singers: Extraversion Keyboard: shyness Composers: reserve, dominance, sensitivity, spontaneity, openness, low self control, radicalism, independence, persistenc Nature or nurture? (Kemp)

Personality and HM Character of… music versus other arts music played by different instruments Did Mozart and Strauss write so well for sopranos because they understood the personality of typical sopranos?

Talent and MP Nature-nurture problem Evaluation of talent “Nurture” aspect well documented “Nature” aspect difficult to investigate Evaluation of talent Difficult to predict future performance musicality tests primarily test hearing skills Difficult to evaluate composed or performed music aesthetic norms tend to be arbitrary

Musical talent and non-musical factors Inborn (?) factors Intelligence, creativity, social competence, hearing skills… Environment Family, individual and classroom teachers, critical experiences Personality Coping with stress, motivation, learning strategies, performance anxiety… Non-musical skills Sciences (maths, technology, computing…), arts (painting…), languages, sport (Heller, 2004)

Talent in humanities musicology HM music of western cultural elites: music of the talented? HM: study of the products of musical talent? Implications of MP talent research for HM EM concepts and roles of talent (or absence thereof) in specific cultures

Composition in MP Difficult to study since very intuitive process arbitrary evaluation of musical quality Contemporary compositional process McAdams case study of Roger Reynolds Are the principles specific or general?

Composition in HM Process Personality composers’ sketches letters and reports of contemporaries Personality historical record does music reflect it?

Creativity in MP Definition: production of novelty: new structures of old elements value: aesthetic value, usefulness, pleasingness Both concepts are difficult to operationalise! Origin: Interaction culture-society-individual “Genius” Has excellent musical skills Knows both culture and society intimately Questionable as a distinct category

Creativity in HM Novelty and value Genius Both concepts are central to HM and philosophical aesthetics of music Genius depends on historic, social, cultural context

Development of creativity Exposure Part of general enculturation, socialisation Confined to specific styles Gender differences Socialisation (main effect) Genes: Hormones (Hassler) (controversial) Motivation Persistence, hard work Independence

The creative process Four phases (Poincaré 1913): Preparation Musical and life experience Skill acquisition Incubation Perception and analysis of problems Illumination Exploration of solutions Synthesis of approaches Verification Social and cultural realisation HM: application to compositional process of individuals MP: difficult to investigate contents of “black box”

Preferences: Listener typologies Adorno (1962) Expert Good listener Art consumer Emotional listener Jazz Pop Unmusical Explanation: socialisation and evolution HM: relation to style classification (Gembris) Alt (1968) Sensitive- emotional Aesthetic (cf. Hanslick) Spiritual-romantic

Preferences: Life-span Open-eared childhood acquisition of varied stylistic knowledge Intolerant teens: a creative phase beginning of preferences, emotionality creation of individual identity, peer pressure HM: wellspring of creativity and originality for most composers Open-eared adulthood Less interest in music (time spent, emotion, function) Continuing preference for music learned in teens (socialisation) HM: composers develop the style that they established in teens (Kemp)

Preferences and musical content Structure MP: Tempo and tonality but not form HM: why is form important? MP: cannot answer this question MP: Complexity HM: historical increase in complexity MP: Berlyne’s curve shifts toward higher optimal complexity Musical meaning MP: Universals related to motherese EM: question of universals MP: Association with specific experiences HM: romantic tradition and aesthetic Familiarity Own versus foreign music EM: main subject matter HM: implied superiority of western culture

Preferences and gender Cliches exist! Females tend to prefer softer more romantic music Males tend to prefer louder, stronger, active, sensational music Explanation Socialisation Evolution HM: gender associations  classification of styles, periods, national character etc.

Preferences and class “Classical” music “Popular” music owning and upper-middle classes? “Popular” music working and lower-middle classes? Explanation: socialisation familiarity, identity HM, art history etc: class-conscious disciplines? EM Attempt to cover all classes: elite, popular, traditional… MP Started like HM, now trying to emulate EM

Psychological and educational research in music performance Source: Parncutt & McPherson (Eds.) (2002) 29.11.06

Today’s aims Summarize performance research Musical development and skill acquisition Implications for education Everday performance issues Implications for professional musicians

Music psychology and music education Often similar research themes E.g. intonation Often little or no contact University / disciplinary structures (conferences, journals)

Talent and potential Considered elsewhere in this file

Motivation and talent Is talent based on hard work? Do motivated students work harder, acquire more skills, and therefore appear more “talented”?

Kinds of motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic Dependent on specific rewards Appropriate for children learning music Intrinsic Acquired gradually Imitation of parents, teachers, peers? An inborn component? Identification with music and with instrument Associated with persistence Necessary to enable long hours of practice

How to motivate music students Balance between: Praise for genuine progress  extrinsic motivation Open, helpful discussion of problems train ability to set goals, solve problems confidence, independence, self-efficacy  intrinsic motivation

Persistence A matter of attitude: Problems are expected and normal Challenges are interesting Ability depends on practice

Attributions Private explanations of success and failure Realistic or exaggerated Incremental or static Thinking affects musical progress! Not just hard work and talent Implications for music education

Goal orientation Children who plan to become musicians are more likely to succeed intrinsic motivation, persistence hours of practice

Performance anxiety Common but still taboo Causes Treatments Most musicians suffer and do not seek support Causes trait anxiety degree of preparation perceived audience reaction pessimistic self-talk, “catastrophization” Treatments Relaxation training Anxiety inoculation – developing realistic expectations Cognitive restructuring – changing habitual attitudes Hypnotherapy, Alexander technique

Music-medical problems Common but still taboo Most musicians suffer and do not seek support Causes Instrument: performance technique Repertoire: technical problems Individual: physique and psychology Practice routines: Repetition, duration, stress History: increasing competition

Music-medical problems Kinds of problem orthopedic (muskuloskeletal), psychological, dermatological, audiological, dental, neurological Prevention Music-medical knowledge Avoidance of excessive repetition Treatment rest, exercises, therapy to prevent re-emergence…

Example: Focal dystonia Symptoms loss of voluntary control in specific trained movements Incidence and consequences about 1% of professional musicians can terminate a musical career Associated with fine motor skills and perfectionism overlap of cortical regions Causes acquired and hereditary Treatment medication, retraining, ergonomic changes to instrument partially successful (Jabusch & Altenmüller 2006)

Brain mechanisms Each musical subskill Areas involved in music Widely distributed brain areas (neural networks) Individually variable Areas involved in music all motor, somatosensory and auditory areas Plasticity: regions are bigger if used more often used earlier in life  musical practice  stable structural changes

Learning music notation Language acquisition model strict temporal sequences: exposure  sonic experimentation  lexical vocabulary basic skills  start to read and write active learning both perceiving and doing improvisation in a social context reading and writing confined to known material

Learning music notation Implications for music education Don’t start too early Don’t start too late

Sight reading Component skills Training Visual perception, recognition, memory Motor control Auditory imagination Stylistic knowledge (guessing) Training Hours of practice with given style

Improvisation Hidden processes - difficult to investigate

Practice Aims Methods Improve technique Learn repertoire Develop interpretations Memorize Methods Physical and mental practice Metacognition – goals, planning, organisation Analyse scores and recordings Take breaks Intrinsic motivation

Memory Why perform from memory? How to memorize Tradition Expression In practice, focus on expression and meaning Understand structure (score analysis) Combine sense modalities Practice improvising in same style

Intonation Subskills Every intonation is a compromise Pitch discrimination and matching Instrument tuning Internal tuning – melodic and harmonic Simple versus complex context Every intonation is a compromise Harmonic versus inharmonic complex tones Pitch shifts due to intensity and masking Just frequency ratios are inconsistent Varying intonations in ensemble Deviations are expressive

Structural communication Structure Phrasing, grouping Meter Melody Harmony and tonality Performance parameters Loudness, timbre, duration of each tone Timing of IOIs Broad definition of “accent”  Communication of structural accents through interpretative accents

Structural communication

Emotional communication Specific emotions in music and speech are expressed by redundant combinations of physical cues: Tempo Articulation Loudness Timbre Attack durational contrast Microintonation Vibrato Variability of all of the above Can be learned!

Body movement Roles in music performance Aspects Non-musical origins Construction Execution Perception Aspects Technical control Expression through gesture communicate structure and emotion show what is important Non-musical origins Motherese Physical movement, running etc.

Conclusion Psychological research in music performance could make a considerable positive contribution to music education at all levels. The main problems: Teachers often don’t know it Students often don’t have time to learn it

Examination

Written examination Last week of January 2007 Answer 5 out of 10 questions Language questions in English answers in English or German Examinable material contents of the lectures literature cited in the lectures Tip: answer each question directly!

ICMPC Question One of the 10 questions will be: "Identify three thematically related papers from the ICMPC in Bologna for which full papers are included on the proceedings CD in the abstract booklet (Handapparat Parncutt). Summarize their main results and implications."