Attitudes and Attitude Change Lecture 6 Attitudes and Attitude Change

Outline What is an attitude? Attitudes and behaviour Definitions 3 categories of evaluative response Attitude functions Values Attitudes and behaviour Attitude formation and change Persuasion Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Definitions of Attitudes An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related. G. W. Allport (1935) The intensity of positive or negative affect for or against a psychological object. Thurstone (1946) An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. Eagley & Chaiken (1993) Attitudes are enduring mental representations of various features of the social or physical world. They are acquired through experience and exert a directive influence on subsequent behavior. Breckler & Wiggins (1989) An attitude is a predisposition to react in a certain way to an object or experience. Alcock, Carment, & Sadava (1991)

Functions of Attitudes (Katz, 1960; Katz & Stotland, 1959) 1. Knowledge: - organize and simplify people’s experience 2. Instrumental: - maximize rewards or minimize punishment 3. Ego-defensive: - protect ourselves from unpleasant realities 4. Value expressive: - allow the expression of personal values and self-concept

Values Values are principles that guide our lives. They are designed to lead us to our ideal world (Schwartz, 1992) Transcend specific situations Guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events Ordered by relative importance

Value Dimensions (Schwartz, 1992) Self-transcendence Openness to change Self- Direction Universalism Stimulation Benevolence Hedonism Tradition Achievement Conformity Power Security Self-enhancement Conservation

Value Dimensions (Hofstede, 1980) Power Distance the tendency to see a large social distance between those in the upper part of a social structure and those in the lower part of the social structure. Control of others’ behaviours Uncertainty Avoidance Avoidance of situations where the outcome is uncertain Security, low risk-taking, state religion Masculinity-Femininity The tendency of members of a culture to value activities that are more common among men than women. “success” vs. “caring for others and quality of life” Individualism-Collectivism Tendency to give priority to personal goals even when they conflict with the goals of important groups.

Chinese Culture Connection (1987) CBC Integration Human-heartedness Confucian work dynamism Moral discipline -- Hofstede Collectivism Masculinity -- Power distance (high) Uncertainty avoidance

Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1987) Attitude toward the behaviour Behavioural Intentions Behaviour Subjective Norms Perceived Behavioural Control

How are Attitudes Formed? 1. Direct experience a. with the attitude object b. with associated object 2. Experience with others a. classical conditioning b. instrumental conditioning c. modelling others’ behavior

Who says what to whom under what circumstances? PERSUASION The process of getting others to agree with (or change their attitude regarding) an advocated position by means of a rational or an emotional appeal. Who says what to whom under what circumstances?

WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES? Source (WHO?) a. Credibility: Are they an expert and are they trustworthy? b. Physical attractiveness

WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES Message (WHAT?) a. primacy-recency effects b. one- vs. two-sided arguments c. fear arousal

WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES? Five factors are important in any fear appeal: 1.) the magnitude of the unpleasantness of the event 2.) the probability that the negative event will occur if the recommended action is not taken 3.) the perceived effectiveness of the recommended action 4.) the perceived ability to perform the recommended action 5.) how afraid you already are of the topic

WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES Recipient or Target (TO WHOM?) a) personality traits (self-esteem and intelligence) b) gender c) mood

WHO SAYS WHAT TO WHOM UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES? Context (UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES?) a. Situational distractions (noise) b. overheard message

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957) Types of Cognitions Irrelevant – two cognitions have nothing to do with each other Consonant – one cognition follows from, or fits with another Dissonant – one cognition follows from, or fits with, the opposite of another; discrepant

Attitude change following induced compliance (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959)

Mean attitudes toward police actions (Cohen, 1962)