Neurones in the brain ~ networks & connections

The synapse

Memory & Learning ~ new connections form, connections are strengthened

Forgetting is an important part of memory & learning

Innate behaviour

The grasp reflex ~ innate behaviour

Reflex ~ Survival responses

Simple reflexes & survival The knee jerk reflex involves only two neurones – the sensory neurone controls the motor neurone directly This is a ‘mono synaptic reflex arc’

Reflex arc diagram from OUP

Habituation ~ learned behaviour If an animal is exposed to: a repeated stimulus Neither beneficial or harmful (neutral) By ignoring non-threatening stimuli, young animals ‘learn’ to pay attention to danger Helps survival, don’t waste energy

Imprinting ~ innate & learned behaviour Imprinting is when animal ‘learns’ to recognise parents instinctively (innate behaviour) Occurs in species where young can move as soon as they are born (why?) Instinct to follow moving object (usually the parent) ~ provides food, shelter etc - to help them survive No innate instinct of what parent will look like – so biologists can exploit this for research purposes

Microlight pilot Christian Moullec went to extraordinary lengths in order to film birds in flight from up close. He hand-reared a brood of Barnacle Geese who now see him as their mother and follow him in flight. Imprinting = animal learns to recognise its parent (mixture of innate & learned behaviour)

Konrad Lorenz (1935) ~ the father of ethology Innate behaviour in geese - imprinting

Nikolaas Tinbergen (1950) ~ innate behaviour in herring gulls

Dian Fossey ~ studied mountain gorillas Fossey made discoveries about gorillas including how females transfer from group to group over the decades, gorilla vocalization, hierarchies and social relationships among groups, rare infanticide, gorilla diet, and how gorillas recycle nutrients.

Dame Jane Goodall ~ a British primatologist & ethologist Six mark Question: Dis cuss the contribution of Jane Goodall and Diane Fossey to animal behaviour research & conservation.

Social Behaviour in apes chimps, gorillas & orang-utans Apes live in groups & so exhibit social behaviour Cooperation to find food Protect each other from attacks Rank – alpha male in every group (dominant) – prevents fights within the group (wastes energy) Grooming – reinforces social bonds within the group, reinforces rank, demonstrates affection, keeps fur clean Social behaviour increases survival

Conditioning

Classical conditioning Animal learns (passively) to associate a neutral stimulus with another more important one (dog, bell, food) Response is automatic, and reinforced by repetition Ivan Pavlov ~

Pavlov’s Experiment

Operant conditioning ~ Skinner box Animal learns actively to associate an action/behaviour with a reward/punishment Trial & error learning Animal actively tries to work something out

Animal Training Usually involves operant conditioning: Reward (treat/praise) or punishment (verbal/whip) for behaviour animal learns to perform certain behaviour for a reward Guide dogs learn to stop at roadside Police dogs & drugs Police horses trained to ignore sounds Dolphin – fish & whistle is a combination of both operant and classical conditioning

Social behaviour & communication Communication benefits the group & improves survival Keep group together (elephants infrasound) Warning about predator Communicate (submission or aggression) Young communicate needs eg hunger Communicate to coordinate an attack (pack hunting)

How do animals communicate? Sound Chemicals Visual signals