ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR INTRODUCTION

Definition It is the field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups and structure on behaviour in the organisation for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving organizational effectiveness It is a systematic study of the behaviour and attitudes of both individuals and groups within the organisations Concerns itself with the scientific study or the behavioral process which occurs in work settings”

Focuses on understanding and explaining individual and group behaviours in organisations It is concerned with what people do in an organisation and how that behaviour affects performance The understanding, prediction and management of human behaviour in the organisations More micro than macro

OB uses systematic study to improve predictions of behaviour. OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within an organization. OB focuses on improving productivity, reducing absenteeism and turnover, and increasing employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment. OB uses systematic study to improve predictions of behaviour. This material is found in more detail on pages 22 and 23.

OT vs. OB vs. HRM Organizational Theory Focuses on the organisation as the unit of analysis. Organizational attributes such as goals, technology and culture are the subject of study. Organizational theory often uses an across-organizational approach or macro perspective in gathering new knowledge.

Human resources management Attempts to apply the principles of the behavioral sciences in the workplace While OB is somewhat more concept oriented, HRM is more concerned with applied techniques and behavioral technology. HRM tries to provide a link between the individual and the organisation by designing and implementing systems to attract, develop and motivate individuals within the organisation

OB Emphasis on the scientific study of behavioral phenomena at individual and group level Level of analysis -Micro/theory oriented OT Focuses largely on organizational and environmental phenomena Level of analysis - Macro/theory oriented

HRM Focuses on the application of behavioral knowledge in selecting, placing, and training personal Level of analysis - Micro/application oriented field of study

The Rigour of OB OB looks at consistencies What is common about behaviour, and helps predictability? OB is more than common sense Systematic study, based on scientific evidence OB has few absolutes OB takes a contingency approach Considers behaviour in context This material is found in more detail on pages 17-19. This would be a good place to get students’ views on questions such as: (1) Are happy workers always productive workers? (2) Are individuals always more productive when their boss is a real “people person?” (3) Does everyone want a challenging job?

Beyond Common Sense Systematic Study Looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence Behaviour is generally predictable There are differences between individuals There are fundamental consistencies There are rules (written & unwritten) in almost every setting This material is found in more detail on page 18.

Exhibit 1-3 Basic OB Model, Stage I Organization systems level Group level Individual level The material for this illustration is found on page 20.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field Psychology Sociology Social Psychology Anthropology Political Science This material is found in more detail on pages 15-16 Psychology is the science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Sociology: Whereas psychologists focus on the individual, sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies people in relation to other human beings. Social psychology is an area within psychology, but it blends concepts from psychology and sociology. It focuses on the influence of people on one another. One of the major areas receiving considerable investigation from social psychologists has been change--how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its acceptance. processes. Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. Anthropologists’ work on cultures and environments, for instance, has helped us understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behaviour between people in different countries and within different organizations. Political science studies the behaviour of individuals and groups within a political environment. Specific topics of concern include structuring of conflict, allocation of power, and the manipulation of power for individual self-interest.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field 1-3a E X H I B I T

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d) E X H I B I T

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d) E X H I B I T

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d) E X H I B I T

Exhibit 1-2 Toward an OB Discipline Social psychology Psychology Behavioural science Contribution Unit of analysis Output Anthropology Sociology Political science Study of Organizational Behaviour Organization system Learning Motivation Perception Training Leadership effectiveness Job satisfaction Individual decision making Performance appraisal Attitude measurement Employee selection Work design Work stress Group dynamics Work teams Communication Power Conflict Intergroup behaviour Formal organization theory Organizational technology Organizational change Organizational culture Intraorganizational politics Organizational environment Behavioural change Attitude change Group processes Group decision making Group Comparative values Comparative attitudes Cross-cultural analysis Individual The material for this illustration is found on pages 15-17.

WHY BOTHER STUDY ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Practical application Personal growth Increased knowledge

Practical application There are important practical benefits to understanding the principles of organizational behaviour: Development of personal styles of leadership can be guided by knowledge of the results of studies of OB that have attempted to relate leadership styles to situational requirements The choice of problem solving strategy or the selection of appropriate employee appraisal format can be guided by an understanding of the results of studies in the associated topic areas

Practical application (cont..) In the area of performance enhancement, benefits can be gained by applying knowledge gathered in the field of OB Because the environment in which the organisation operates is increasing in complexity, one must understand how to design effective organizational structures and how to relate to individuals from diverse and often international background Being able to deal effectively with others in organizational settings requires understanding of OB

Practical application (cont..) Attracting and developing talented individuals are 2 issues critically important to the survival and prosperity of an organisation Emphasis of human element instead of on technical financial and other tangible resources often separate competing organisations when it comes to organizational performance. This occurs because all serious competitors in a given industry are likely to have attained nearly the same level of technical sophistication

2.PERSONAL GROWTH The second reason for studying OB is the personal fulfillment we gain form understanding our fellow human Understanding others may also lead to greater self-knowledge and self insight Such personal growth is an aspect of education that is often cited as the greatest benefit of studying the liberal arts and sciences

Personal growth (cont…) Advancement in the business world It is also important for advancement in business world – it can make a difference when it comes to advancing beyond an entry level position. Entry level hiring are based largely on technical competency, such as certification in a specialized area e.g. CPA. Bachelor’s degree, MBA etc. Promotions however are often based on more that mere technical competency. They are based on demonstrated abilities to understand and work effectively with superiors, peer and subordinated. In short, an understanding of organizational behaviour may be invaluable to you once you have that first job and seek to distinguish yourself

3.INCREASED KNOWLEDGE To gather knowledge about people in a work setting At minimum, the filed seeks to gather knowledge for its own sake just like some sciences like Physics and chemistry; the practical use of certain findings may not be practical for years. Same could apply to Organizational Behaviour. Some early theories were not of immediate use but are today useful Additionally, the study of OB can help one think in a critical fashion about matters that relate to experience of working. Such critical thinking ability can be useful in analyzing both employees and personal problems

challenges facing organisations today that have made it necessary for managers to Study OB

Exhibit 1-1 Challenges Facing the Workplace Organizational Level • Productivity Developing Effective Employees Global Competition Managing in the Global Village Group Level Working With Others Workforce Diversity Individual Level Job Satisfaction Empowerment Behaving Ethically The material for this illustration is found on page 6.

Today’s Challenges in the Workplace Challenges at the Individual Level Job Satisfaction Empowerment Behaving Ethically Challenges at the Group Level Working With Others Workforce Diversity This material is found in more detail on pages 8-11. 1. In a recent Financial Post survey, 75 percent of the public said it was extremely important for managers to make employees happy and satisfied. 2. Employees are increasingly demanding job satisfaction out of their jobs. In a recent Financial Post survey, 75 percent of the public deemed it extremely important for managers to make employees happy and satisfied. 3. Managers are empowering employees. They are putting employees in charge of what they do. And, in the process, managers are learning how to give up control, and employees are learning how to take responsibility for their work and make appropriate decisions. 4. In addition to the more obvious groups—women, First Nations peoples, Asian Canadians, African Canadians, Indo-Canadians—the workplace also includes people with disabilities, gays and lesbians, and the elderly.

Today’s Challenges in the Canadian Workplace Challenges at the Organizational Level Productivity Developing Effective Employees Absenteeism Turnover Organizational Citizenship Competition From the Global Environment Managing and Working in a Global Village This material is found in more detail on pages 11-15. 1. Absences in 2001 resulted in the loss of 3.4% of weekly work time. Absenteeism’s annual cost has been estimated at over $18 billion for Canadian firms and $60 billion for U.S. organizations. 2. In recent years, Canadian businesses have faced tough competition from the United States, Europe, Japan, and even China. To survive, they have had to cut fat, increase productivity, and improve quality. 3. As multinational corporations develop operations worldwide, as companies develop joint ventures with foreign partners, and as workers increasingly pursue job opportunities across national borders, managers and employees must become capable of working with people from different cultures.

Productivity Productivity Effectiveness Efficiency A performance measure including effectiveness and efficiency Effectiveness Achievement of goals Efficiency The ratio of effective work output to the input required to produce the work This material is found in more detail on pages 11.

Effective Employees Absenteeism Turnover Failure to report to work Turnover Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from the organization Organizational citizenship behaviour Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements, but is helpful to the organization This material is found in more detail on pages 12-13.

Challenges facing organisations Improving quality and productivity More and more managers are confronted with the challenge of having to improve their organisations productivity and the quality of their products and services. In improving quality and productivity, they are implementing programmes like TQM and Business Process Reengineering (BPR) 2. Improving people skills/interpersonal skills OB gives the manager the opportunity to completely exercise insight in behaviour, how to alter the behaviour and generally improve interpersonal skills The subject matter of OB helps both practicing managers as well as potential managers to develop skills that can be used on the job

Challenges facing organisations (cont…) 3. Managing workforce diversity Workforce diversity has important implication for management – managers will need to shift their philosophy form treating everyone alike to recognizing differences and responding to them in ways that will ensure employee retention and greater productivity. 4. Responding to Globalization The world today is continuous becoming global village. Organisations no longer constraint themselves to national boarders. OB provides us with fundamental concepts to enable us focus on how cultural differences might require managers to modify their managerial practices

Challenges facing organisations (cont…) 5. Empowering people Managers are empowering employees; they are putting employees of what to do. They have to learn how to give up control and employees have to learn how to take up responsibility for their work. 6. Stimulating innovativeness and change This implies that today successful organisations must foster innovation and master the art of change, or they become extinct. Victory will go to organisation that maintain flexibility, continually improve quality and beating competition in the market place

Challenges facing organisations (cont…) 7. Coping with temporariness Today change is an ongoing activity for most manages. Managing in the past could be characterized by long periods of stability, interrupted occasionally by short periods of change. But managing today could be described as long period of on going change, interrupted occasionally by short periods of stability The world that most managers and employees face today is that of permanent temporariness. There is permanent change in the jobs themselves, so workers need to continuously update their knowledge and skills to perform new jobs requirements Today managers and employees must learn to cope with temporariness. They have to live with flexibility and unpredictability.

Challenges facing organisations (cont…) 8. Dealing with employees’ loyalty Today, organisations seek to be lean, and mean by closing down operations, moving to low cost regions, closing the less profitable branches, and eliminating entire levels of managing and replacing permanent employees with temporary ones. These kinds of changes result in a decline of employee loyally. Employees perceive that their employers are less committed to them and as a result, they result to being committed to their employer The manager therefore is to devise ways to motivate workers who feel less committed to their employers, but at the same time maintain organizational global competitiveness

Challenges facing organisations (cont…) 9. Improving Ethical Behaviours Organisations today are characterized by cut backs, expectations of improving workers productivity and tough competition in the market place. Due to there pressures, employees feel pressured to cut corners, break roles, and engage in other forms of questionable practices could also be contracted to give guidance to employees Today managers need to create an ethically healthy climate, living by example, for employees where they can do their work productively and confront minimal degree of ambiguity regarding what constitutes right and wrong behaviour.

OB – HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1900 – 1945) First developed by Fredrick W. Taylor (1856 – 1915) Taylor aimed at making management a science abased on a well recognized, clearly defined and fixed principles He replaced the rule of the thumb method of scientific management

As a chief instrument for developing managerial systems He advocates the use of Observation Measurement Experimentation Analysis Rationality Reasoning As a chief instrument for developing managerial systems

The basic components of scientific management as propounded by Taylor are: Determination of the standard of performance Functional foremanship Responsibilities of management Differential piecework system of wage payment Mental revolution

Determining the standards of performance Taylor introduced the “time and motion study” to identify exactly how long it takes to do a task and identify and eliminate wasteful motions Functional foremanship Here Taylor called for separation of planning from doing where the functional foreman (specialist) did the planning of various aspects of work

Responsibility and management Managers should accept responsibility for planning, directing and organising Managers should perform these functions in a scientific way – i.e. analyse all operations and develop scientific methods of doing them Workers should be scientifically selected and trained Managers should heartily cooperate with workers to ensure that work is done according to scientifically selected managers

Differential piece work system of payment To ensure that workers turn out optimal production – so that workers who work hard get more Mental revolution Taylor held that the technique of determining work standards, delimiting wasteful operations and differential piece rate system of wage payment should benefit the worker in form of higher wage payment and the employer in form of higher production and this would result to a “mental revolution” between ,management and workers They would develop a cooperative rather than antagonistic attitude towards each other

Criticism of Tailors Study Saw man as an economic being - man is only motivated by money Saw that man can be programmed as a machine – in the development of standards of performance

The Hawthorne Studies (1924 – 1945) The Hawthorne Experiments The experiments were carried out between 1927 and 1933 at the Chicago Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company. Four studies were carried out namely: The illumination studies The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies The interviewing Program The Bank Wiring Room studies

a) The illumination studies These studies were expected to determine the relationship between the level of illumination and worker’s productivity. It was expected that worker’s productivity would increase with increasing levels of illumination. The studies failed to prove any relationship between worker’s productivity and level of illumination

b) The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies These studies were carried out to determine the relationship between worker’s productivity and improved benefits and working conditions. The studies found out that there was no cause – and – effect relationship between working conditions and output. Rather, there were other factors that affected worker’s output such as his/her attitudes and supervisor behavior

c) The interviewing Program A group of employees were interviewed to learn more about their opinions with respect to their work, working conditions and supervision. The workers suggested that: Psychological factors help determine whether a worker is satisfied or dissatisfied in any particular work situation The person’s need for self-actualization determines his/her satisfaction in the work. A person’s work group and his relationship to it, also determines his/her productivity.

d) The Bank Wiring Room studies This study was expected to study the effect of group influence on workers productivity. The researchers found out that an informal grouping and relationship was a critical factor in the workers’ productivity. The informal group determined the group’s productivity, and functioned as a protective mechanism (served both for internal and external purposes).

Conclusions on Hawthorne experiments An industrial organization is a socio technical system. The socio part is the human aspects that need to be taken care of in order to increase workers’ productivity and the technical system is the physical aspects that also need to be improved. Employee attitudes and morale are also important as determinants of productivity. Other factors include worker’s personality and supervisor’s behavior. These two also affect worker’s altitude and morale. A worker’s social group has a prevailing effect on his or her altitude and productivity

Criticisms of the Hawthorne studies The philosophical basis By emphasizing the social needs of human being rather than the economic needs and self-interest, these studies conflict the philosophical basis of economic theory. Methodology The study methodology lacks the basis for generalizations. Findings The cause – and – effect relationship conclusions lack general support and scientific verifiability.

Contribution The Hawthorne Studies have however made the following contribution OB. Their finding on the importance of informal groups is also a key to organization theory. Their emphasis on employee altitude towards work as an additional to other factors was a breakthrough in OB.

CONTINGENCY APPROACH (1945 – PRESENT Following World War II, a new approach on organizational behaviour began to develop Called the contingency approach, it acknowledged the difficulty of offering simple general principles to explain or predict behaviour in organizational setting The approach sought to specify the conditions under which we can expect to find certain relationships. As such it represented a search for the factors that would aid in predicting and explaining behaviour

Organizational behaviour researchers who subscribe t the contingency approach believe that employee behaviour is too complex to be explained by only a few simple and straight forward principles. Instead, they seek to identify the factors that are jointly necessary for a given principle to hold Contingency researchers recognize the interdependency of personal and situational factors in determination of employee behaviour therefore if you ask what is the best way for a manager to behaviour – autocratically or democratically, the contingent researcher will consider issues like subordinates expectations and preferences and the situations at hand, cultural differences, etc

CULTURE –QUALITY MOVEMENT (1980 – PRESENT TQM is a corporate culture characterized by increased customer satisfaction through continuous improvements, in which all employees actively participate Two terms that gained quick interest among managers and organizational researcher’s wee organizational culture and quality improvement. The authors of several books in the early 1980s – Peter Waterman ( In Search of Excellence), Deal and Kennedy ( Corporate Culture) and others focus on how to build a strong set of shared positive values and norms within a corporation (that is a strong corporate culture) while emphasizing quality service, high performance and flexibility.

Advocates of culture – quality movement claim that productivity and financial return can be significantly enhanced by developing culture that emphasize key values Presently, the evidence suggest that, properly introduced, there are some economic advantages to following culture-quality movement

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORKS OF OB

OB – Theoretical Framework Although OB is extremely complex and includes many inputs and dimensions, three frameworks: The cognitive, Behaviouristic, social cognitive frameworks Can be used to develop an overall model for OB

The theories The theories to be discussed will include: Behaviouristic theories Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive theory Social learning Social cognitive theory

Cognitive Framework The cognitive approach to human behaviour has many sources of inputs ( the five senses) Cognition, which is the basic unit of the cognitive framework, can be defined as the act of knowing an item from information Under this framework, cognition precedes behaviour and constitutes input into the persons thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing

Edward Tolman Cognitive framework Although Tolman believed behaviour to be appropriate unit of analysis, he felt that behaviour is purposeful, that it is directed towards a goal He felt that cognitive learning consists of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectations Through experimentation, he found out that a rat could learn to run through an intricate maze, with purpose and direction, towards goal (food)

Tolman observed that at each point in the maze, expectations were established – in other words, the rat learned to expect a certain cogitative cue associated with the choice point might eventually lead to the food If the rat actually received the food, the association between the cue and the expectancy was strengthen, and leaning occurred Tolman’s approach could be depicted that learning is an association between the cue and the expectancy)

In his laboratory experiment, he found that animals learned to expect a certain event would follow another – for example, animal learned to behaviour as if they expect food when a certain cue appeared. Thus, Tolman believed that learning consist of expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that the organisms is thinking about or is conscious or aware of, the goal.

Thus Tolman and others espousing the cognitive approach felt hat behaviour is best explained by these cognitions Applied to OB, cognitive approach has dominated unit of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, decision making and goal setting

BEHAVIOURISTIC FRAMEWORK The roots of behavioristic theory of human behaviour can be trace back to the work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson These pioneering behaviorists stressed the importance of dealing with observable behaviour instead of the elusive mind that had preoccupied earlier psychologist They used the classical conditioning experiment to formulate the stimulus-response (S - R) explanation of human behaviour

Both Pavlov and Watson felt that behaviour could be best understood in terms of S-R A stimulus elicit response They concentrated mainly on the impact of the stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S -R connection was made Ivan Pavlov who attributed leaning to the association or connection between stimulus and response (S-R

Based on Pavlov classical conditioning experiment using dogs as subjects When presented with meat powder ( unconditioned stimulus) - the dog secreted saliva (unconditioned response) When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus) the dog did not salivate When meat was accompanied with the ringing of the bell several times, then Pavlov rang the bell without presenting the meat, the dog salivated to the bell alone

Conclusion - that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned response) to the sound of the bell ( conditioned stimulus Thus classical conditioned can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicit a conditioned response; in other words, the S-R connection is learned

Example of Pavlov S - R Stimulus (S) Is stuck by a pin Is shocked by an electric current Is surprised by a loud sound Is tapped below the kneecap Response ® Flinches Jumps/screams Flexes lower leg

B.F Skinner Another psychologist whose work explains this framework is B. F. Skinner. He felt that the early behaviorists helped explain respondent’s behaviours (those behaviours elicited by stimulus) but not the more complex operant behaviours In other words, the S -R approach helped explain the physical reflexes, for examples, when stuck by a pin (S), the person will flinch ( R) or when tapped below the kneecap (S) the Epson will extend the lower leg ( R)

Skinner felt that classical conditioning explains only respondent (reflexive) behaviours. – i.e. involuntary responses that are elicited by a stimulus He felt that more complex, but common human behaviour cannot be explained by classical conditioning alone. He noted that the greater part of the behaviour of an organism was under control of stimuli which were effective only because they were correlated with reinforcing consequences Through his research thus , skinner posited that behaviour was a function of consequences, not the classical conditioning eliciting stimuli

He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates on, the environment to receive a desirable consequences. This type of behaviour is learned through operant conditioning Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with learning that occurs as a consequence of behaviour, or R-S. It is not concerned with the eliciting causes of behaviour, as classical , or respondent, conditioning is The organism has to operate on an environment (thus the term operant conditioning) in order to receive the desirable consequences.

The preceding stimulus does not cause the behaviour in operant conditioning; it serves as a cue to emit the behaviour. For skinner and other behaviorists, behaviour is a function of its contingent environmental consequences So behavourisitic approach is environmentally based. It posits that cognitive processes such as thinking, expectancies, and perception may exist but are not needed to predict and control or manage behaviour

On the other hand, Skinner found out through his operant conditioning experiment, that the consequences of a response could better explain most behaviour than elicit stimuli could He emphasized the importance of the response-stimulus (R -S) relationship

Example of Skinners operant conditioning Response ® Works Talks to others Enters a restaurant Enters a library Increases productivity Completes a difficult assignment Stimulus (S) Paid Meets more people Obtain food Finds a book Receives merit pay Receives praise or a promotion

Behaviouristic theories These came out of the behaviorist school of thought in psychology and derived from the work of: Classical behaviorist like Ivan Pavlov who attributed leaning to the association or connection between stimulus and response (S-R) The operant behaviorist, in particular the well known American psychologist B. F. Skinner who give more attention to the role that consequences play in learning or the response –stimulus (R-S) connection

Classical conditioning Based on Pavlov classical conditioning experiment using dogs as subjects When presented with meat powder ( unconditioned stimulus) - the dog secreted saliva (unconditioned response) When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus) the dog did not salivate When meat was accompanied with the ringing of the bell several times, then Pavlov rang the bell without presenting the meat, the dog salivated to the bell alone

Classical conditioning (cont..) Conclusion - that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate (conditioned response) to the sound of the bell ( conditioned stimulus Thus classical conditioned can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicit a conditioned response; in other words, the S-R connection is learned This theory is seen to be used in marketing

Operant conditioning Skinner felt that classical conditioning explains only respondent (reflexive) behaviours. – i.e. involuntary responses that are elicited by a stimulus He felt that more complex, but common human behaviour cannot be explained by classical conditioning alone. He noted that the greater part of the behaviour of an organism was under control of stimuli which were effective only because they were correlated with reinforcing consequences Through his research thus , skinner posited that behaviour was a function of consequences, not the classical conditioning eliciting stimuli He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates on, the environment to receive a desirable consequences. This type of behaviour is learned through operant conditioning

Operant conditioning (cont..) Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with learning that occurs as a consequence of behaviour, or R-S. It is not concerned with the eliciting causes of behaviour, as classical , or respondent, conditioning is

Differences between operant and classical A change in the stimulus (US to CS ) will elicit a particular responses The strength and frequency of classically conditioned behaviour are determined mainly by the frequency of the eliciting stimuli ( the environmental events that precedes the behaviour) Operant One particular response out of many possible ones occur in a given stimulus The stimulus situation serves as a cue for person to emit response and does not elicit response

Differences between operant and classical (cont..) The strength and frequency of classically conditioned behaviour are determined mainly by the frequency of the eliciting stimuli ( the environmental events that precedes the behaviour) The strength and frequency of operantly conditioned behaviours are determined mainly by the consequences (the environmental event that follows behaviour)

Differences between operant and classical (cont..) During the classical conditioning process, the unconditioned stimulus, serving as a reward is presented every time The reward s presented only after the organism gives the correct response The organism must operate in the environment (thus the term operant conditioning) in order to receive a reward

Examples of classical conditioning Stimulus (S) Is stuck by a pin Is shocked by an electric current Is surprised by a loud sound Is tapped below the kneecap Response ® Flinches Jumps/screams Flexes lower leg

Examples of operant conditioning Response ® Works Talks to others Enters a restaurant Enters a library Increases productivity Completes a difficult assignment Stimulus (S) Paid Meets more people Obtain food Finds a book Receives merit pay Receives praise or a promotion

Operant conditioning Today operant conditioning has much greater impact on human learning than classical conditioning It explain much of organizational behaviour E.g. people go to work to feed, cloth and house themselves and their families - working (conditioned response) is instrumental in obtaining food, shelter and clothing Managers can analyse the consequences of organizational behaviour, to change the environment, and help accomplish goals

Cognitive theories Edward Tolman is widely recognized as pioneer of cognitive theorists He felt that cognitive learning consists of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectations Through experimentation, he found out that a rat could learn to run through an intricate maze, with purpose and direction, towards goal (food)

Edward Tolman – Cognitive theory Tolman observed that at each point in the maze, expectations were established – in other words, the rat learned to expect a certain cogitative cue associated with the choice point might eventually lead to the food If the rat actually received the food, the association between the cue and the expectancy was strengthen, and leaning occurred In contrast to the S-R and R – S learning in classical and operant approaches, Tolman’s approach could be depicted as S-S ( stimulus-stimulus) or learning the association between the cue and the expectancy)

Social learning and social cognitive theory This theory combines and integrates both behaviorist and cognitive concepts and emphasizes the interactive, reciprocal nature of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants Social learning theory recognizes and draws from the principles of classical and operant conditioning but went beyond classical and operant theory by recognizing that there is more to leaning than direct learning via antecedent stimuli and contingent consequences

Social learning takes position that behaviour can best b explained in terms of continuous interactions among cognitive, behavioral and environmental determinants The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent unit but in conjunction with behaviour itself

It is largely through their actions that people produce the environmental condition that affect their behaviour in a reciprocal fashion The experience generated by behaviour also partly determines what a person becomes and can do which in tern affects subsequent behaviour

Org. participant, environment and behaviour - relationship participant control their own behaviour to the extent that they rely on cognitive support and manage relevant environmental cues and consequences Cognitive representation of reality helps guide organizational behaviour Much of complex behaviour is acquired by directly observing others in the surrounding environment

Social learning theory (cont..) Social learning theory posits that learning can also take place via vicarious/explicit/shocking/juicy, or modeling, and self –control conditioning processes. Thus social learning theory agrees with classical and operant conditioning processes, but says they too are limiting and adds vicarious, modeling and self-control processes

Social cognition – Albert Bandura This theory goes beyond social learning It extents learning and/or modifying by giving more attention to self-regulatory mechanisms Specifically, social cognitive theory identifies five capabilities that people use to initiate, regulate and sustain their behaviours. Theses are (1) symbolizing, (2) forethoughts, (3) vicarious/ modeling learning (observational) , (4) self regulation, and (5) self reflection

Learning is one of the fundamental behaviour processes, involves both the development and the modification of thoughts and behaviours Other concepts and aspects of organizational behaviour 9 for example motivation that will be discussed in later chapters can be fully explained with the use of learning principles

New employees will bring with them a set of previously leaned ways of behaving. They are then expected to learn additional information than applies to their jobs. Established employees continue to develop their job related skills and abilities Therefore, learning is a never ending process for all employees.

The process is also very complex The process is also very complex. -an employee who has already learned one way to perform a job may have trouble learning a second albeit better way An employee motivation to perform is closely linked to learning. Therefore a manager who understands leaning process can use the principles of learning to guide employees behaviour and performance.

Today operant conditioning has much greater impact on human learning than classical conditioning It explain much of organizational behaviour E.g. people go to work to feed, cloth and house themselves and their families - working (conditioned response) is instrumental in obtaining food, shelter and clothing Managers can analyse the consequences of organizational behaviour, to change the environment, and help accomplish goals

Social cognitive Framework The cognitive approach has been accused of being mentalistic, and the behavioristic approach has been accused of being deterministic. Social Cognitive theorists argue that the S-R model and to a lesser degree the R –S model, are too mechanistic explanation of human The social cognitive approach tires to integrate the contribution so both of these approaches Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorism’s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation

Based on the work of Albert Bandura social learning theory and David and Luthans, this framework proposes a social learning approach to organizational behaviour Social learning takes the position that behaviour can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral and environmental determinants. The persons and the environmental situations do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with the behaviour itself, reciprocally interact to determine behaviour

Bandura explains that “it is largely through their actions that people produce the environmental conditions that affect their behavior in a reciprocal fashion The expediencies generated by behaviour also partly determine what a person becomes and can do which in turn, affects subsequent behaviour A triangular model of Organizational participants, organizational environment and organizational behaviour takes this social learning work of Bandura and translates it into relevant unit of analysis and variables of organizational behaviour

Org. participant, environment and behaviour - relationship participant control their own behaviour to the extent that they rely on cognitive support and manage relevant environmental cues and consequences Cognitive representation of reality helps guide organizational behaviour Much of complex behaviour is acquired by directly observing others in the surrounding environment Bandura has taken his social leaning and developed into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT). Specifically SCT recognises the importance of behaviorism’s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation