20.1 Section Objectives – page 529 1. Which of these fungi are you familiar with? 2. Why do you think these diverse species are classified into a single kingdom? 20.1 Section Objectives – page 529

Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi What is a Fungus? Unit Overview – pages 472-473

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The Characteristics of Fungi The three main characteristics of Kingdom Fungi: Incomplete cell walls Reproduce with spores Obtain nutrients through extracellular digestion Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The Characteristics of Fungi Fungi are everywhere—in the air and water, on damp basement walls, in gardens, on foods, and sometimes even between people’s toes. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Fungus Among Us

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The structure of fungi Although there are a few unicellular types of fungi, such as yeasts, most fungi are multicellular. The basic structural units of multicellular fungi are their hyphae Hyphae are threadlike filaments which develop from fungal spores. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The structure of fungi Germinating Spore Mycelium Spore Food Source Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The structure of fungi There are different types of hyphae in a mycelium. Some anchor the fungus, some invade the food source, and others form fungal reproductive structures. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The structure of fungi Unlike plants, which have cell walls made of cellulose, the cell walls of most fungi contain a complex carbohydrate called chitin. Chitin gives the fungal cell walls both strength and flexibility. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Inside hyphae In many types of fungi, cross walls called septa (singular, septum) divide hyphae into individual cells that contain one or more nuclei. In hyphae divided by septa, cytoplasm flows from one cell to the next through pores. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Inside hyphae Septum Nuclei Cell Wall Cytoplasm Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Inside hyphae Some fungi consist of hyphae with no septa. Nuclei Cytoplasm Cell Wall Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Inside hyphae Under a microscope, you see hundreds of nuclei streaming along in a continuous flow of cytoplasm. As in hyphae with septa, the flow of cytoplasm quickly and efficiently disperses nutrients and other materials throughout the fungus. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Adaptations in Fungi Some fungi cause food to spoil. Some cause diseases, and some are poisonous. However, they play an important and beneficial role. In a world without fungi, huge amounts of wastes, dead organisms, and debris, which consist of complex organic substances, would litter Earth. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Adaptations in Fungi Many fungi, along with some bacteria and protists, are decomposers. They break down complex organic substances into raw materials that other living organisms need. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Adaptations in Fungi Fungi can be harmful to animals and plants. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 How fungi obtain food Fungi are heterotrophs, and they use a process called extracellular digestion to obtain nutrients. In this process, food is digested outside a fungus’s cells, and the digested products are then absorbed. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 How fungi obtain food Chemicals released by hyphae digest dead materials. Hyphae absorb the digested food. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 How fungi obtain food For example, as some hyphae grow into the cells of an orange, they release digestive enzymes that break down the large organic molecules of the orange into smaller molecules. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Different feeding relationships A fungus may be a saprophyte, a mutualist, or a parasite depending on its food source. Saprophytes are decomposers and feed on waste or dead organic material. Mutualists live in a symbiotic relationship with another organism, such as an alga. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Different feeding relationships Parasites absorb nutrients from the living cells of their hosts. Fungal hypha Haustorium Host cell Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Reproduction in Fungi Depending on the species and on environmental conditions, a fungus may reproduce asexually or sexually. Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores. Yeast budding Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Reproducing by spores Spores Bread Mold Sporangium Most fungi produce spores. Hyphae Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 Reproducing by spores Many fungi can produce two types of spores—one type by mitosis and the other by meiosis—at different times during their life cycles. One important criterion for classifying fungi is by how they reproduce. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The adaptive advantages of spores Many adaptive advantages of fungi involve spores and their production. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534 The adaptive advantages of spores sporangia protect spores fungi produce a large number of spores at one time spores are small and lightweight Producing so many spores increases the germination rate and improves the species survival chances. Section 20.1 Summary – pages 529-534

Question 1 Hyphae develop from _______. A. spores B. chitin C. cellulose D. rhizoids Section 1 Check

The answer is A, spores. Bread Mold Spores Sporangium Hyphae Section 1 Check

Question 2 A mycelium is composed of _______. A. spores B. hyphae C. sporangia D. conidiophores The answer is B, hyphae. Section 1 Check

Question 3 What are three different functions that hyphae can perform in a mycelium? Answer Some hyphae anchor the fungus, some invade the food source, and others form fungal reproductive structures. Section 1 Check

Question 4 Explain how a fungus performs extracellular digestion. Answer Hyphae grow into the cells of the food source, releasing digestive enzymes that break down large organic molecules into smaller molecules. These molecules move in the free-flowing cytoplasm to where they are needed for growth, repair, and reproduction. Section 1 Check

Question 5 Which type of fungi lives in a symbiotic relationship with another organism? A. parasites B. saprophytes C. mutualists D. decomposers The answer is C, mutualists. Section 1 Check

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction How is having both asexual and sexual reproduction an adaptive advantage?

Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi Diversity of Fungi Unit Overview – pages 472-473

Diversity of Fungi

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Zygomycotes You have probably seen Rhizopus stolonifer, a common bread mold. Many other members of about 1500 species of zygomycotes are also decomposers. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Growth and asexual reproduction When a Rhizopus spore settles on a moist piece of bread, it germinates and hyphae begin to grow. Some hyphae called stolons grow horizontally along the surface of the bread, rapidly producing a mycelium. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Growth and asexual reproduction Some other hyphae form rhizoids that penetrate the food and anchor the mycelium in the bread. Rhizoids secrete enzymes needed for extracellular digestion and absorb the digested nutrients. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Growth and asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction begins when some hyphae grow upward and develop sporangia at their tips. Asexual spores develop in the sporangia. When a sporangium splits open, hundreds of spores are released. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Growth and asexual reproduction Spores Bread Mold Sporangium Hyphae Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Producing zygospores Spores (n) Spores (n) Sporangia Sporangium - Mating strain (n) Hypha + Mating strain (n) Gametangia Stolon Zygospore Meiosis Rhizoids Germination Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Ascomycotes The Ascomycota also called the sac fungi, is the largest phylum of fungi, containing about 30,000 species. Conidiophores Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Important ascomycotes Sac fungi are familiar to farmers and gardeners because they cause plant diseases such as apple scab and ergot of rye. Not all sac fungi have a bad reputation. Ascomycotes can have many different forms. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Important ascomycotes Morels and truffles are two edible members of this phylum. Morels Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Important ascomycotes Perhaps the most economically important ascomycotes are the yeasts. Yeasts are unicellular sac fungi that rarely produce hyphae and usually reproduce asexually by budding. Yeasts are anaerobes and ferment sugars to produce carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Important ascomycotes Because yeasts produce alcohol, they are used to make wine and beer. Other yeasts are used in baking because they produce carbon dioxide, the gas that causes bread dough to rise and take on a light, airy texture. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Basidiomycotes Mushrooms, puffballs, stinkhorns, bird’s nest fungi, and bracket fungi are all basidiomycotes. Shelf fungi Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Basidia and basidiospores Cap Gills Spore-producing part Spores Hyphae Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Basidia and basidiospores A basidiomycote, such as a mushroom, has a complex reproductive cycle. What you call a mushroom is a reproductive structure of the fungus. Most of the fungus is underground and not visible. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Deuteromycotes There are about 25,000 species of fungi classified as deuteromycotes, which have no known sexual stage in their life cycle. Although the deuteromycotes may only be able to reproduce asexually, another possibility is that their sexual phase has not yet been observed by mycologists, biologists who study fungi. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Diverse deuteromycotes If you’ve ever had strep throat, pneumonia, or other kinds of bacterial infection, your doctor may have prescribed penicillin—an antibiotic produced from a deuteromycote that is commonly seen growing on fruit. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Diverse deuteromycotes Other deuteromycotes are used in the making of foods, such as soy sauce and some kinds of blue-veined cheese. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Diverse deuteromycotes Still some deuteromycotes are used commercially to produce substances such as citric acid, which gives jams, jellies, soft drinks, and fruit-flavored candies a tart taste. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Mutualism: Mycorrhizae and Lichens Certain fungi live in a mutualistic association with other organisms. Two of these mutualistic associations that are also symbiotic are called mycorrhizae and lichens. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Mycorrhizae A mycorrhiza: is a mutualistic relationship in which a fungus lives symbiotically with a plant. Most of the fungi that form mycorrhizae are basidiomycotes, but some zygomycotes also form these important relationships. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Mycorrhizae How does a plant benefit from a mycorrhizal relationship? Fine, thread-like hyphae grow harmlessly around or into the plant’s roots. The hyphae increase the absorptive surface of the plant’s roots, resulting in more nutrients entering the plant. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Mycorrhizae Phosphorus, copper, and other minerals in the soil are absorbed by the hyphae and then released into the roots. In addition, the fungus also may help to maintain water in the soil around the plant. In turn, the mycorrhizal fungus benefits by receiving organic nutrients, such as sugars and amino acids, from the plant. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Mycorrhizae Plants of a species that have mycorrhizae grow larger and are more productive than those that don’t. In fact, some species cannot survive without mycorrhizae. Lady slipper orchid Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Lichens It’s sometimes hard to believe that the orange, green, and black blotches that you see on rocks, trees, and stone walls are alive. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Lichens A lichen: a symbiotic association between a fungus and a photosynthetic green alga or a cyanobacterium, which is an autotroph. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Lichens The fungus portion of the lichen forms a dense web of hyphae in which the algae or cyanobacteria grow. Together, the fungus and its photosynthetic partner form a structure that looks like a single organism. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Lichens Lichens need only light, air, and minerals to grow. The photosynthetic partner provides the food for both organisms. The fungus, in turn, provides its partner with water and minerals that it absorbs from rain and the air, and protects it from changes in environmental conditions. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Lichens There are about 20,000 species of lichens. Found worldwide, lichens are pioneers, being among the first to colonize a barren area. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543 Lichens Not only are lichens pioneers, but they are also indicators of pollution levels in the air. The fungus readily absorbs materials from the air. If pollutants are present, they kill the fungus. Without the fungal part of a lichen, the photosynthetic partner also dies. Section 20.2 Summary – pages 535-543

Symbiotic Fungus Farmers

Question 1 An example of a fungal infection from a dermatophyte is _______. A. rye ergot B. black stem rust C. dry rot D. athlete’s foot Chapter Assessment

The answer is D. A dermatophyte fungus invades skin, nails, and hair. Chapter Assessment

Question 2 Morel mushrooms and truffles are members of which phylum? A. Ascomycotes B. Zygomycotes C. Basidiomycotes D. Deuteromycotes Chapter Assessment

The answer is A, Ascomycotes. Morels Chapter Assessment

Question 3 What fungus is important in the production of wine and bread? A. Penicillium B. black bread mold C. yeast D. corn smut Chapter Assessment

The answer is C, yeast. Chapter Assessment

Question 4 Fungi that have cup shapes are most likely _______. A. Zygomycotes B. Ascomycotes C. Basidiomycotes D. Deuteromycotes The answer is B, Ascomycotes. Chapter Assessment

Question 5 Where do basidiomycotes get their common name, club fungi? Answer Their common name comes from their club-shaped hyphae called basidia. Chapter Assessment

Question 6 In basidiomycotes, the basidia are located in the _______. A. gills B. stipe C. mycelium D. basidiospores Chapter Assessment

The answer is A, gills. Cap Gills Spore-producing part Spores Hyphae Chapter Assessment

Question 7 Which of the following pairs is NOT related? A. bread rising – ascomycotes B. blue-veined cheese – deuteromycotes C. black bread mold – zygomycotes D. Penicillin – basidiomycotes The answer is D. Chapter Assessment

Question 8 How is a lichen relationship different from a mycorrhizal relationship? Answer A lichen is a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium. A mycorrhiza is a relationship between a fungus and a plant. Chapter Assessment

Question 9 How are lichens indicators of pollution levels in the air? Chapter Assessment

Lichens readily absorb materials from the air Lichens readily absorb materials from the air. If pollutants are present, they kill the fungus, which also kills the photosynthetic partner. Chapter Assessment

Question 10 Which of the following is NOT a plant pathogen? A. smut B. ergot C. ringworm D. rust The answer is C. Ringworm is a human pathogen. Chapter Assessment