Sociological Research Sociology 101

A Look Ahead How do sociologists go about setting up a research project? How do they ensure that the results of the research are reliable and accurate? Can they carry out their research without violating the rights of those they study?

Sociology is a science because it uses the same techniques as other sciences Explaining social phenomena is what sociological theory is all about Sociological theory is much more than speculation Sociologists typically conduct two types of empirical studies.

Descriptive studies designed to find out what is happening to whom, where, and when. Explanatory studies answer the questions why and how.

What is the Scientific Method? Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method

Scientific Method? Defining the Problem Reviewing the Literature State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate Operational Definition: explanation of abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept Reviewing the Literature Refines the problem under study Helps us decide what questions to ask.

Formulate a Hypothesis A tentative assumption. A statement that speculates the relationship between two or more variables. Variable - A trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions.

Types of Variables Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: action depends on the influence of the independent variable to affect its action

What is the Scientific Method? Figure 2-3. Causal Logic

Causal Logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation. correlations not based on causal connections are called spurious correlations

Correlation is when a change in one variables is associated in some way with a change in another variable. Positive versus Negative Correlations

Collecting Data: Selecting the Sample Research Design Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

Sample: selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population Random Sample: when every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

Surveys Study, generally in form of an interview or questionnaire, that provide sociologists with information about how people act or think Interview researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning Questionnaire researcher uses a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent

Surveys Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

Observation Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community Participant observation: when sociologist joins a group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it operates Ethnography: efforts to describe entire social setting through extended systematic observation

Experiments Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables Experimental group: exposed to independent variable Control group: not exposed to independent variable Hawthorne Effect: unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

Use of Existing Sources Secondary Analysis: research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data A. Uniform Crime Reports - The annual publication of the FBI presenting official statistics on the rates and trends in crime in the USA.

Table 2-1: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

Table 2-2: Major Research Designs

Analyzing the Data Statistical analysis b. NORC - National Opinion Research Center. Analyzing the Data Statistical analysis

Developing the Conclusion Supporting the Hypothesis Sociological studies do not always generate data that support the original hypothesis Controlling for Other Factors Control Variable: factor that is held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income

Table 2-1: Top Reasons Why Men and Women had Sex

Table 2-2: Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research

Table 2-3: Major Research Designs

Ethics of Research Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) Maintain objectivity and integrity in research Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity Protect subjects from personal harm Preserve confidentiality Seek informed consent Acknowledge collaboration and assistance Disclose sources of financial support

Ethics of Research Confidentiality Research Funding Value Neutrality Feminist Methodology

Technology and Sociological Research Extends range and capability to conduct research Allows researchers to store and analyze large amounts of information Web-based surveys in early stages, but initial results promising

Studying Human Sexuality The Issue Kaiser Family Foundation found more than two-thirds of TV shows include some sexual content How does one carry out scientific research on such a controversial and personal topic?

Studying Human Sexuality The Setting Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S. Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial

Studying Human Sexuality Sociological Insights Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency or corporation may also accept the agency’s perspective on what needs to be studied

Studying Human Sexuality Policy Initiatives In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed NHSLS to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S. Used $1.6 million of private funding to fund research

Figure 2-5: Percent of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content

Using Statistics Percentage: Shows portion of 100 Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values Mode: Single most common value in a series of values Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

Reading Graphs and Tables Tables allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables Graphs are often easier for the general public to understand

Figure 2-6: Changing Attitudes toward Legalization of Marijuana

Figure 2-7: Changing Attitudes toward Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age

Writing a Research Report Finding Information Check textbooks Use library catalog Use computerized periodical indexes Examine government documents Use newspapers Ask people, organizations, and agencies Consult instructor

Writing a Research Report Writing the Report Focus on topic Develop an outline Work ahead of deadline Read paper aloud Including Citations and References