Toltecs Who were the Toltecs? Tula Toltec Sphere of Influence Fall of Tula and the Toltecs

Tolteca-Chichimeca & Nonoalca Populated by two groups Tolteca-Chichimeca probably original Nahuatl-speakers who founded Toltec state reported to have come from north leader was Mixcoatl ("Cloud Serpent" = Milky Way) reported to have settled at a place in the Valley of Mexico called Colhuacan son and heir was Tolpitzin, later identified with Quetzalcoatl described as having fair skin and black beard Ce Acatl Tolpitzin, born at TepoztlÝn, Morelos in AD 935 or 947 searched for and buried deceased father's remains moved Toltec capital to Tula in AD 968

Nonoalca Referred to as highly civilized leaders, priests, merchants, and craftsmen (bearers of the Mesoamerican tradition) Davies sees them as coming possibly from Gulf Coast region of Veracruz and Tabasco, or they may have come from Teotihuacan Diehl believes they probably included upper and middle classes from Teotihuacan, Monte Alban, Xochicalco, El Tajin, and other centers who were forced to search out new lives when home communities declined suggests migration played a major role in formation of Toltec civilization

Toltec economy Agriculture Irrigation was essential Sahagun's* informants told him Toltecs had ears of corn that could hardly be carried in one's arms, cotton in all different colors (from bright red to green, blue, and violet) maize was the basic food source supplemented with beans, chili peppers, amaranth, squashes, and maguey medicinal plants and drugs also grown farming in milpas and household gardens earth worked with stone or wooden hoes planting with wooden digging sticks polycropping common (beans and squash with maize) Irrigation was essential Tlaloc was probably a critical deity hillside terraces built to trap water and silt for agriculture intensification technique which was probably a response to population pressure *Sahagun was a Spanish missionary, born in Sahagun, Leon, late in the 15th century; died in Mexico, 23 October, 1590.

Hunting and gathering Wild seeds included mesquite and chenopodium fruits included cherry-like capulin, persimmon, and prickly pear turkeys and small dogs were only meat-producing domestic animals bees were probably raised for honey wild animals included deer, jackrabbit, cottontail rabbit

Craft production "Toltec" came to mean master craftsman or artisan Sahagun's informants described "scribes, lapidarians, carpenters, stone cutters, masons, feather workers, feather gluers, potters, spinners, and weavers" feather work is reported to have been exceptionally good used on shields worked turquoise, gold, copper, tin, mica, and lead, together with green stones, amber, rock crystal (quartz), amethyst, pearls, and opals tecali, often confused with onyx, used for beads, ornaments, bowls, jars, and other luxury products bowls made by polishing and coring obsidian controlled Pachuca obsidian mines prized above all other obsidian by Mesoamericans used-up cores found all over city, not just in workshop zone suggests cores were produced for trade Diehl suggests 2000 craftsmen

Artifacts: Pottery Brazier with skulls Duck effigy bowl Pipes Papagayo polychrome bowl http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltecs-dishware.htm

Artifacts: Stone Carvings Jaguar statue Figurines http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltec-standing-figurines.htm

Atlantes Altar support from the Temple of Quetzalcoatl Rear view of the  altar support http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-atlantes.htm

Commerce Diehl believes there was a Toltec "pochteca" (specialized merchant group) trade wares included Central American polychromes, Plumbate, Central Veracruz wares, and Huastec pottery from north Gulf Coast conspicuously absent was Fine Orange from southern Veracruz, Tabasco, and Campeche cacao and quetzal feathers may have come from Guatemala northern steppe zones provided turquoise, serpentine, quartz, rock crystal, mica, amethyst, and cinnabar also peyote and hallucinogenic mushrooms Pacific coast shells indicate commercial ties with Michoacan, Nayarit, and Colima metal ornaments, especially copper, may also have come from this region

Religion Tezcaltlipoca - the night and the darkness Tláloc god of the rain and the vegetation Centéotl god of the corn ltzpapáloti or butterfly of obsidian Tonatiuh or solar god.

Tlaloc god of rain http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltec-tlaloc.htm

Politics - "The Toltec State" Precise definitions of borders impossible included much of central Mexico and adjacent areas to the north Hidalgo, Basin of Mexico, Valley of Toluca, parts of Baja and Morelos most of northern boundary coincided with limits of effective agriculture Motivation for empire building was "free" wealth in the form of tribute Matricula de Tributos, an Aztec document, gives us an idea of the types of tribute received Emphasis on three types of goods food maize, beans, chilis, amaranth, chian, and animals textiles goods of cotton and maguey fiber, cotton goods probably reserved for the elite exotic luxury goods feathers, animal skins, minearal, semi-precious stones, and other items such as lumber, pottery, lime, bark paper, honey, and wild animals

Important rulers mentioned in drama of Toltec history Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl enthroned as priest and king of Tollan, said to have led his people away from human sacrifice, also had problems: incest with sister when drunk, fled Tula in shame after run-in with Tezcatlipoca, also struggled with Ihuimecatl and Toltecatl Tezcatlipoca ("Smoking Mirror") sacrificer, lord of sorcerers, reported as charming and enchanting people Kukulcan culture hero reported to have arrived in Maya area ca. AD 986-987 reported as Mexican conqueror who arrived with companions to subjugate the country "Kukulcan" is a translation of "Feathered Serpent" into Yucatec Maya said to have ruled Chichen Itza until his death Huemac, last king of Tula, forced to flee as a result of growing factionalism and encroaching barbarians some identify Huemac as Tezcatlipoca, said to have fled around AD 1063 due to droughts, conflicts, and fighting between the Tolteca-Chichimeca and Nonoalca result in destruction of Tula ca. 1150 settled in Chapultepec, on western banks of Lake Texcoco dated to 1156 or 1168 and eventually killed himself

Archaeology Multi-ethnic group that introduced changes in public and religious architecture and new styles of stone carving and ceramics. Tula buliders did not call themselves Toltecs, but the Aztec used the word to refer to a skilled craftsperson or artisan. mixture of Nahuatl, Otomi, Nonoalca, Chichimec peoples. Carnegie Museum of Washington who had been working at Chichen Itza began excavations at Tula, Hidalgo., also University of Missouri worked with Mesoamerican groups to conduct work after 1966. Chronology in the area based largely on ceramics. Prior to 400 A.D. Tula region was integrated with Teotihuacan, but most people in the area were farmers and also some Hilltop sites such as Mogone. By around 700 A.D. areas such as Tula Chico which is situated north of the Tula area with civic-ceremonial architecture laid out in a n-s axis. Several areas occupied for different reasons and at different times in Tula. Tula Chica, Cerro Mogone, Tula Grande, Tula de Allende, Canal Locality, El Corral, Cerro El Cielito, Cerro La Malinche.

Early Excavations Archaeologist Jorge Acosta, primary excavator at Tula, stands next to Pyramid B. http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-excavations.htm

Tula A.D. 900-1200 Development of city north of Teotihuacan. Located on the Tula river and near the Lerma rivers for easy communication with others. This new capital was closer to the northern limits of agriculture. Toltec history embellished by Aztecs, Spaniards and others after their collapse in 1200 A.D.

Tula Geography Climate north of Valley of Mexico in southern part of state of Hidalgo rivers flow northeast to Rio Moctezuma, then down Sierra Madre Oriental into Rio Panuco and Gulf of Mexico Dry, desertified area hardy scrup and cactus thickets, mesquite, prickly pear, and yucca soils are rich, alluvial ones but irrigation necessary for agriculture high mountains to the east hold clouds away from area and rainy season precipitation is insufficient for rainfall agriculture Tula area has slightly more rain, irrigation water, and arable land than rest of region Climate mild, with annual temperatures ranging from 16-19C (60-66F) monthly temperatures average from 11C (52F) in December to 38C (100F) in May with frosts frequent in winter

Tula Grande Just south of Tula Chico, was occupied during the prime phase of Tula 950-1150 A.D. 13 km in area, with a population of 30-60,000 residents. craftspeople, trades people, religious leaders, but not farmers. workshops included manos and metates makers. City laid out on n-s axis. center with double plaza complex, two pyramids, council halls, and a colonnaded vestibule. two ballcourts, much of this built on large single platform 10-15 meters in height. Building C was the most impressive but was destroyed. Building B is the Temple to Quetzalcoatl. stone sculpture is largely made of columns, pillars, relief panels, and atlantids which are figures of men used to support roofs or altars. a new feature known as a serpent wall which does not surround the temple but is free standing along the north. also depictions of Patolli playing which is a game of chance played by many mesoamerican groups and is similar to modern Parchessi. chacmool figures as well.

1. North Ball Court 2. Coatepantli 3. Palace of Quetzalcoatl 4. Palace of the Columns 5. Vestibule 6. Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli 7. Mound C 8. Tzompantli 9. South Ball Court

Tula Ballcourts Ballcourt 1 Ballcourt 2 Stone (found in the center of the ballcourt) possibly connected with the scoring or ritual  of the game  http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/ballcourt-no2.htm

Palace of the Columns

Temple of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli (Temple of the Morning Star) http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-temple.htm

Atlantes Atlantean warrior columns on the summit of Pyramid B, Tula Grande.  All are made of basalt and are over fifteen feet tall.

Pyramid B: Temple of Quetzalcoatl Chacmool http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/toltecs1.htm

Recreation of what the temple would have looked like in the past.

Pyramid C Talud-tablero Drainage in Rear of pyramid http://www.rose-hulman.edu/~delacova/tula-2.htm

Coatepantli Detail of the Coatepantli, which depicts a band of serpents devouring a skeletal form On the inner side of this is a well preserved frieze depicting a rather grisly scene of a long line of snakes swallowing skeletal people, who are thought to be warriors.

Palace of Quetzalcoatl

Toltec Sphere of Influence Sphere vs. Empire Not really a major empire like Teotihuacan or some other sites. It never had a well-defined boundary and nothing to indicate centralized control. Trade Must have been an important influence on their wealth, organization and management. Toltec artifacts have a wide but uneven distribution. much art has militaristic displays, but no coercion or conquest has been discovered archaeologically. Artifacts found at sites such as Casas Grandes to the north, sites to the west, and Veracruz. Received items such as gold from the south.

Fall of Tula and the Toltecs Sahagun's version: Epic conflict between Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl latter represented by priest or ruler Ce Acatl Tolpitzin Quetzalcoatl may have shared sovereignty with Huemac Tezcalipoca is said to have created so much misfortune that the Toltecs perished or fled Tula Quetzalcoatl fled to Gulf Coast Huemac fled to Chapultepec

Fall of Tula and the Toltecs Davies scenario northern frontier shifted southward through time, opening Tula to attack ca. 1120 caused some Toltecs to migrate into lands claimed by Cholula immigrants from northern frontier turned on their hosts and assisted Cholula with help agains Toltec invaders group of northerners, led by Mixcoatl, settled in Basin of Mexico after helping Cholulans Mixcoatl's sone Ce Acatl Topiltzin gained control of Tula in AD 1166 conflicts arose with Tula-born faction led by Huemac increased pressures from Huastecs and Chichimecs led to stress and downfall of both men

Problems were both Internal and External Agriculture agriculture was especially sensitive to drought problem became critical with population growth Tula may have become overpopulated by 1100 climate change and decrease in precipitation may have caused many years of famine historical accounts contain many references to food problems Conflicts often coupled with stories of conflicts and battles over land, famine may have coincided with period of greatest influx of population Social integration problems of multi-ethnicity continual flow of migrants into the city caused strains migrants may have been toughened and warlike

Archaeological evidence Evidence for fire and destruction found in every building Not clear that all of it took place at once Canal Locality houses appear to have been abandoned by 1100 on the basis of radiocarbon dates Urban peripheries appear to have been abandoned before central core

Toltec Legacy Slowly, a few city states rose up to dominate their neighbors, but no real successor to the Toltec power emerged during this period. The Kings of Culhuacan, as described in their "Annales de Culhuacan" had some limited power, claiming descent from the legendary Toltecs. But every other dynasty (Quiche, Itza, Mixtec, Chichimec) did the same. Claiming to be a descendent of the Toltec Kings was routine; even if many of the earliest rulers after the fall of Tula were in all likelihood truly related to the nobles of the Mixcoatl/Topiltzin/Huemac era, most of the succeeding generations of petty rulers were not. History, however, is written by the victors, and the victors in the incessant warfare of the post-Toltec era were eager to associate themselves with the once glorious Toltecs.