What is Social Theory?

Theory Harrington 2005: 1-3 Greek word theōria, opp. of praxis contemplation / reflection Reflection on the value and meaning of different modes of contemplating the world (art, myth, science, religion, etc.) Reflection of the (social) world, but also of (social) science itself

Different meanings of „theory“ Theory – is in itself a contested term – Any form of systematically ordered propositions – Anything abstract (not about empirical cases)

Modern uses of „theory“: Sets of propositions allowing us to generalize. Thoughts providing explanation (establishing a causal relationship between variables), „source of explanatory concepts“ (Harrington 2005: 12) Traditionally also: „source of ways of evaluating the point or use or meaning of such concepts“ (Harrington 2005: 12). – Philosophy of science (wissenschaftstheorie) – Meta-theory (theory about theories)

Methods vs Methodology Method: systematic procedure/technique to pursue a certain aim Methodology: „principles governing the application of a set of methods“ „theory of methodical practice“ (Harrington 2005: 5)

Social Theory, Common Sense and Social Context Where does social theory come from? – From empirical observation (induction) – From any part of social life (not necessarily from a scientific activity), including everyday life, art etc. – „common sense“ can be seen as a social theory about the world (a very general, widespread and often quite blunt theory) – Every social theory is in some way related to the socio-historical context in which it occurs – It is not ABOVE ongoing social and political developments/struggles

Differences to everyday/common sense theories: – Social theory attempts to systematize and clarify the debate – It is usually more reflective and differentiated than common sense – It is constantly checked with reference to empirical evidence

Objectivity Is social science / social theory objective? – We cannot distance ourselves completely from the social world. We are a product of this world, we have a position / a standpoint in this world. This informs our theories (whether in social science or everyday life). Thus subjectivity creeps in. – Theory (whether scientific or everyday) supplies criteria for selection and discrimination, both with regard to the empirical object of study (observations) as well as with regard to explanations

Facts „something done“ Refers to empirical reality (description) But: facts are always laden with values Without values/interests we do not distinguish one fact from another What we look at, and how we perceive it,is conditioned by our values/interests

Empirical description: what is? Normative prescription: what should be? We cannot completely disentangle empirical description from normative prescription (although that is what we might attempt) Therefore: there is no objective truth to be found

Does that mean that every statement has the same claim to be true, that social science is completely relative, that we have no way of judging /evaluating social research? No! Theories / statements have more claim to be true, – If they show, how one arrives at that statement, giving reason at each step of the argument – If they explain, how a given reason can account for an observation – If others are able to follow the argument and come to the same conclusion It is inter-subjectivity rather than objectivity that we can reach in social research

Objectivity : separation of fact from value, of empirical description from normative prescription Might be strived for, but never completely possible Might be a/ the central goal in social research (August Comte: positivism) Others deliberately start from a normative position There are lots of positions in between

Types of Social Theory Normative, empirical, logical/deductive Level of analysis: micro vs macro Range: general/universal, mid-range, small- scale/specific According to major independent variable

Materialism: socio-economic explanations, e.g. Marxism Institutionalism: institutions determine social + political life, e.g. Aristotle, Montesquieu Culturalism: culture as major driving force. Perceptions/Ideas/Values matter Individualism: Rational Choice (actor centred, preferences, calculation of costs and benefits) Neo-Institutionalism: institutions are facilitating and restricting options